admitted without discussion 3.29 fn 3, 6.16
authentic document 2.61
authenticity not a ground for admissibility 6.21
authenticity precondition to admissibility 6.31, 6.126
automated film recordings 2.67
complex electronic evidence 2.22
microfilm 2.67, 6.118, 6.119, 6.120
photographs, computer enhanced 2.84 fn 1
photographs, real evidence 2.7
printouts, breath test machine 2.67, 10.12 fn1
printouts, computers 2.67, 3.47, 5.210, 6.17, 6.21, 6.28, 6.115 fn 1
secondary evidence 2.6
telephone records without statement 6.25
video recordings 2.67
Alcotest 4.37, 5.24, 5.219 fn 1
Analogue evidence 2.14, 2.24, 2.49
difference, digital 6.9
photocopying 2.50
tape recording 2.14
Analysis of electronic evidence
generally 9.56
forensic 9.6
Animations, computer-generated 1.104 fn 1, 2.83
authenticity 1.106
juror perception influenced 1.106
seeing is believing 2.85
testimonial evidence 2.85
Anti-computer forensics 9.103, 9.106, 9.124, 9.130, 9.131, 9.135, 9.140
data destruction 9.107
trail obfuscation 9.106, 9.131
Anti-virus software 5.114, 8.5, 9.135
Application software 1.17, 1.31, 1.32, 1.48, 1.66, 1.68, 1.121, 6.8, 6.92, 7.29, 7.169, 7.273, 9.2, 10.2
Application Transaction Counter 6.18
Archival systems 6.76, 6.77, 6.78, 6.79
Artificial intelligence 1.98
Adversarial attacks 1.108
transparency and explainability 1.107
Assertions about ‘reliable’ computer systems 5.132, 5.125, 6.19
absence of illegal activity 9.118
circumstantial evidence 9.35
erroneous 9.97
false 9.56
latent assumptions 2.37
hidden errors 2.37
ATMs (automated teller machines)
attacks 10.2
security protocol implemented incorrectly 5.111
theft by members of staff 7.108 fn 4
withdrawals, time of 5.172, 6.19
Augmented reality 1.104, 1.106
assertions of forgery 6.32, 6.123, 6.124
Australia, Uniform Evidence Acts 6.21, 6.35
authenticity, meaning 1.116, 2.36, 2.66, 4.29, 5.189, 5.198, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3
authenticity, prerequisite 6.31, 6.126
authenticity, presumption 6.84
best evidence rule see Best evidence
blockchain 6.86 and following
problem for authentication 6.89
business records see Business records
admissibility 6.26, 6.27, 6.45, 6.48
best evidence 6.27, 6.41, 6.48, 6.51
Canada Evidence Act 1995 6.26, 6.27, 6.44, 6.47
integrity 6.44, 6.45, 6.49, 6.50, 6.51, 6.52, 6.54
integrity of the system 6.49, 6.50, 6.54, 6.131, 6.133
Uniform Electronic Evidence Act 6.26, 6.41, 6.45, 6.47
Uniform Law Conference 6.26, 6.46
chain of custody 6.40 see also continuity of custody;continuity of evidence
Chain of Preservation Model 6.78
challenging 5.189 and following, 6.91 and following
assert without evidence 6.17
authenticity 6.18, 6.67, 6.91, 6.110
cloud 6.91 and following
formats, verifying 6.110
Internet of Things 6.99
migration, verifying 6.110
protocol 5.198
trial within a trial 5.189
circumstantial evidence 6.68, 6.69, 6.70, 6.98, 6.100, 6.125, 6.135
collection, affect admissibility 6.67
complex systems, five tests for 6.24 fn 4, Appendix 1
components of an electronic record 6.12, 6.34, 6.36, 6.55, 6.90, 6.101, 6.132
continuity of custody 6.31 fn 2, 6.40, 6.60, 6.66, 6.67, 6.107, 6.131, 9.7, 9.45, 9.93
continuity of evidence 5.34, 9.12, 9.14, 9.47, 9.130, 10.7
admissible, Canada 6.26
authenticity, England and Wales 6.23
telephone records from another jurisdiction 6.25
database 6.34, 6.38, 6.57, 6.100, 6.102, 9.78, 9.92, 9.96, 9.100, 9.102, 9.113
digital certification 6.65, 6.66
digital signature 6.38, 6.81, 6.82, 6.85, 6.134, 9.43
documentary accuracy 6.43
electronic record 6.27, 6.45, 6.47, 6.48, 6.51, 6.52
Electronic Documents and Records Management Systems 6.62, 6.63, 6.64
Civil Evidence act 1995 6.23, 6.24
Civil Procedure Rules Pt 31 6.16
Civil Procedure Rules Pt 33.19 6.16
Criminal Justice Act 1988 6.24
email 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.13, 6.17, 6.68, 6.70, 6.90, 6.123, 6.124
establishing, standard 6.31, 6.48, 6.55, 6.62, 6.70, 6.97, 6.110, 6.111
first in time version 9.30, 9.31, 9.31, 9.33, 9.43, 9.48, 9.113
see also first instantiation
foundational requirements 6.29
circumstantial evidence 6.125
converted 6.41
document 6.12
interoperable 6.97
logical 6.108
native 6.6
pdf 6.103
stability 6.132
judicial 6.28
hash digest 6.66, 6.86, 6.87, 6.89
ignorance of lawyers 1.1
incorrect assumptions 6.72, 6.74
indirect evidence 2.2
insufficient foundation 6.29, 6.131
instant message communications 6.28
instantiation 6.36, 6.102, 6.132
integrity 6.1, 6.16, 6.37, 6.38, 6.44, 6.109, 6.134
Internet, pages from 6.124
Internet of Things 6.99, 6.100
InterPARES 6.80
Judicial see also Presumption of reliability
mainframe computers 6.30, 6.123 fn 1, 10.3
digital certification 6.65
self-authentication 6.61
system authentication 6.62, 6.63
metadata 2.8, 6.81, 6.82, 6.83, 6.84, 6.108
migration 6.80, 6.82, 6.88, 6.109, 6.110, 6.111, 6.134
misunderstanding of IT system 6.57
mutability 6.88
object, originally linked to 6.2, 6.3
Open Archival Information System 6.78
original see Original
organizational criteria 6.60, 6.90
photograph 6.21
physical document 6.9 fn 1, 6.11 fn 1
preservation 6.101 and following, 9.5, 9.29
Chain of Preservation 6.80
cloud storage 9.22
digital 6.107
integrity 6.84
long-term 6.88
manifested record 6.102
obsolescence 6.85
permanent 6.134
place 6.77
requirements 6.81
stored record 6.102
system 6.79, 6.88, 6.91, 6.133
traditional 6.107
presumption of authenticity 6.55, 6.84, 6.98
printouts 5.210, 6.17, 6.21, 6.28, 6.115 fn 1
probative value 2.76, 4.33, 9.40
proof see Proof
provenance 5.192, 5.210, 6.60, 6.129
qualifications of witnesses 6.28
records management 6.47, 6.52, 6.53, 6.54, 6.133
reliability 6.5, 6.17, 6.36, 6.44, 6.46, 6.58, 6.59
authentication, heart of 6.58
behaving consistently 6.93
defined 6.42
documentary 6.42
integrity not reliability 6.50
presumption 6.55
quality 6.50
upload of records 6.90
repository 6.63 fn 1, 6.77, 6.78, 6.79, 6.86, 6.108
screenshot 6.21
seals 6.60
self-authentication 6.61
social media 6.17, 6.21, 6.68, 6.69, 6.74
standards 6.1, 6.8, 6.46, 6.47, 6.48, 6.49, 6.51, 6.52, 6.62, 6.90, 6.97, 6.133
system authentication 6.62
system integrity 6.49, 6.50, 6.54, 6.93, 6.95, 6.107, 6.131, 6.133, 6.135
tests, authenticity 6.24 fn 4, 6.31
threshold for authentication 6.21
time stamps 6.60
Trusted Digital Repositories 6.77
Trusted Third Party Repository 6.78, 6.79
trustworthiness 1.93, 5.22, 5.61, 5.213, 6.37, 6.77, 6.79, 6.101, 10.9, 10.28, Appendix 1
verifying claims 6.60
weight of evidence 6.15, 6.17, 6.22, 6.24, 6.27, 6.28, 6.67
authenticity first challenged 6.16
original, attest 6.32
Banking systems, security protocol, failure 5.111
Bankers’ books rule 6.113
copies of entries 6.115
exception 7.107
application 2.49
authenticity, proof of 2.66, 6.27, 6.5, 6.131, 6.132
civil proceedings 2.46, 2.59, 2.60, 2.64
criminal proceedings 2.46, 2.63, 2.64, 2.65
digital file, reliability 2.66
electronic copy 2.57
forgery, circumvent 6.32
modern application 2.48
original 2.44, 6.33, 6.34, 6.36, 5.190, 6.32
original, failure to produce 2.45, 2.50, 5.190
photocopying 2.50
proof of integrity 6.51
signature, forgery 7.202
statutory version 2.60
trial by charter 6.32
oral testimony permissible 2.45
Biodynamic version of a manuscript signature, as electronic signature 7.196, 7.197, 7.198, 7.199, 7.200, 7.201, 7.202
Blackberry 1.92, 6.17 fn 1, 9.10, 9.108
Blockchain 1.25, 6.87, 6.88, 6.89, 6.90
amending in light of electronic signatures 7.151
use of electronic signature, ease of amending contract unwittingly 7.152
usual provision for signature 7.150
clock 2.38, 2.38 fn 3, 5.224, 5.229
evidence rejected 5.22
oral testimony 2.34
printout 2.22, 2.34, 2.35, 2.38, 2.60, 2.67, 3.33 fn 1
Browse wrap, as electronic signature 7.98, 7.99, 7.100
Bugs, definition of 5.78
Burden of proof 2.72, 5.3, 5.259 fn 2
bank, PIN 7.107
browse wrap 7.100
electronic signature, power of minister 7.72
electronic signatures 7.61, 7.67, 7.302, 7.330
email address, forgery 7.190
encryption foregone conclusion 8.60
evidence electronic signature 7.93
PIN 7.261 fn 1
presumptions 7.296
reallocate 5.226
relying party 7.107 fn 1
reversed 5.169, 5.222 fn 3, 6.73
security and integrity 7.311
sending party 7.311
unexplained wealth 9.92
without authority, used 7.36, 7.108
accurate, should be 6.122
authenticity 6.123, 6.126, 6.127, 6.128, 6.129, 6.130
Bankers’ Books Evidence Act 1879 2.67 fn 4, 6.113 fn 1, 6.115, 6.116, 6.119, 6.118, 6.119, 6.120
blockchain 6.87
cloud 6.98 fn 1
computer business records trustworthy, assertion 5.128
computer systems exception 6.19
database 2.31
electronic, can be manipulated 6.123
exception to the hearsay rule 6.42, 6.62, 6.112, 6.113, 6.114, 10.16
hotel cards with machine readable code 10.16
inaccuracies, Princess of Wales Hospital, prosecution of nurses 6.57, 9.99, 9.100, 9.101, 9.102
manipulation, subject to 6.122
photographs 6.115, 6.116, 6.117
printout 10.10
public documents reliable, not imply accuracy 6.42
rationale 6.113
telephone calls 10.9
Cache files, legal consequences 9.109
Cell site analysis 1.45 fn 1, 1.123, 4.28 fn 2, 9.25 fn 1, 10.21, 10.21 fn 3
Chain of evidence 6.40, 9.45 see also continuity of custody; continuity of evidence
Chat room 3.20 fn 3
Characteristics of electronic evidence
contamination 1.119
dependency on machinery and software 1.117
distinction between paper and electronic data 1.116
electronic document is a process 1.117
intellectual framework 9.137
jurisdiction 1.25
legal repercussions 1.118
machinery, dependency on 1.117
mediation of technology 1.118
misleading impression between paper and electronic data 1.115
networked environment 1.130
practical problems 1.133
replication 1.125
speed of change 1.121
software, dependency on 1.117
storage media 1.129
technical obsolescence 1.121
translation 1.126
volume 1.125
Circumstantial evidence 2.2, 5.3, 5.5, 6.17, 6.68, 9.35
abusive images of children 9.35
authenticate digital evidence 6.69, 6.125
cloud, stored in 6.98
email 6.70
proof of identity 6.7
Click wrap, as electronic signature 7.90, 7.91, 7.92, 7.93, 7.94, 7.95
accuracy 1.19, 2.38, 4.11, 5.6 fn 1, 7.247, 9.60, 9.61
component of a digital device 1.18
correctness 5.21 fn 1
facsimile machines, not accurate as a matter of ‘common sense’ 9.60
false assumptions, ATM 5.74
malfunction 5.212
real-time clock 1.18, 1.19, 1.70
USNO Master Clock 9.60 fn 1
validate, need to 4.11
video clock 9.58
co-operating 9.28
copying data 9.27
Council of Europe 9.55
deleted 9.52
forensics 9.7, 9.15, 9.48, 9.49, 9.50, 9.139
forensic triage 9.39
generally 1.45
obtaining access 1.46
preservation 9.22
standards, claimed 6.93
unique problems 9.24
Collection of evidence, Chapter 9 generally, see Forensic investigation
Computer-generated animations and simulations 2.83
admissibility 2.85, 2.92, 2.94
advantageous 2.97
assumptions and premises 2.86, 2.92 fn 1, 2.95, 2.97
authenticity 1.106
Bloody Sunday Inquiry, use of, in 2.95
civil proceedings 2.87
criminal proceedings 2.89, 2.94
forensic reconstructions, probative value 2.93, 2.94
inaccuracy 2.92
legal issues 1.104 fn 1
prejudicial effect 2.90, 2.92, 2.93
presenting evidence, methods 1.94, 106 fn 1, fn 3
probative value 2.93
safeguards 2.82
‘seeing is believing’ tendency 2.85
special care warranted 2.85
testimonial evidence 2.85
Constant proportion debt obligations (CPDOs), risk assessment of 5.148
Continuity of custody 6.2, 6.40, 6.60, 9.45, 9.33
Continuity of evidence 5.34, 6.31 fn 2, 6.40, 6.60, 6.66, 6.67, 6.107, 6.131, 9.130, 107
bitstream copy 9.30
data to be copied 9.54
number of removes 6.24
secondary evidence 6.32, 6.115
Corpus Chronophage 9.60
Dark web 1.48
Tor 1.49
virtual private network 1.49
Dangerous driving and text messages 5.227
deletion 1.91, 1.129, 9.103, 9.117, 9.119, 9.129
deletion tools 9.129
physical destruction 9.112, 9.113
obfuscation 1.95, 9.106, 9.131
re-installation 9.109
Data formats 1.27
cache files 1.88
files 1.66
program logs 1.86
system logs 1.86
temporary files 1.88
Data visualization 1.104
authenticity 1.106
juror perception influenced 1.106
Decryption see Encrypted data
Deep web 1.48
Definition of electronic evidence 1.110, 1.113
destruction 9.104
overwrite 9.33
reasonable suspicion 9.109, 9.110
reconstruct 9.30
recover 1.9, 9.56, 9.79, 9.93, 9.109
prevent 9.50
wiping software 8.35
Digital evidence, see Electronic evidence
careless 1.70
civil proceedings, whether to use in 9.10
device, relevant knowledge 1.122
distortion, prevent 1.120
informed decisions 9.53
interpretation 9.95, 9.117, 9.137
investigation, conduct 9.94
investigation, method used 1.93, 9.17, 9.19, 9.35, 9.72
principles, fundamental 9.31
quality of evidence from 9.10
tools, use of 9.40, 9.69, 9.70, 9.88
Digital devices 1.4
digital data formats 1.27, 1.28
embedded devices 1.10
embedded devices in biological bodies 1.11
erasable programmable read-only memory 1.22
mobile devices 1.7
processors 1.6
central processing unit 1.6
graphical processing unit 1.6
network interface controller 1.6
trusted platform module 1.6
random access memory 1.22, 1.23
read-only memory 1.22
secondary storage 1.23
starting a device 1.29
imaging 1.85, 6.60, 9.73, 9.76
judicial failure to understand 9.13
Digital signature 7.203 and following
algorithms and keys 7.204
asymmetric cryptographic systems (public key) 7.219, 7.236
biometric measurements 7.231
fingerprints 7.233
secret codes 7.230
sender 7.225
burden of proof 7.302 and following, 7.330
can do 7.258
cannot do 7.259
Certificate Authority 7.119, 7.245
Dutch, issued certificate to impostor 7.254
internal management 7.251
certificate 7.241
certificate revocation list 7.255
certifying 7.298
duties of a user 7.250
individual identity certificate 7.219, 7.220, 7.279 fn 1
internal management 7.251
issuing a certificate to an impostor
DigiNotar B.V. 7.254
revocation of certificate 7.246
disguising the message 7.206
duties of user 7.250
evidence 7.278 and following
generally 7.30
jitsuin 7.320 and following
legal presumption 7.325
registering 7.322
rebutting presumption 7.328
Seal Registration Certificate 7.324
control 7.205
denies using 7.102
distributing 7.245
expiry of keys 7.249
generation of key pair 7.243
private 7.65, 7.77, 7.213, 7.214, 7.224, 7.259, 7.262
private key, example 7.270
validating path 7.281
validating public key 7.244
weakest link 7.265
liability, monetary value 7.237 fn 2
analysis 7.292, 7.293, 7.294, 7.295
burden of proof 7.296
cryptographic 7.297
danger 7.286
engineers use of term 7.290
incorrect assertions 7.287, 7.288, 7.289
purpose 7.291
problems, well known 7.260, 7.261, 7.262
quality 7.275
signature 7.111
public key infrastructure (PKI)
barriers 7.252
cannot do 7.257
difficulties 7.222
recipient, procedural and due diligence 7.311
revocation 7.246
certificate revocation list 7.221, 7.247, 7.252, 7.255, 7.256, 7.281, 7.282
reasons for revoking 7.246
risks, imposter 7.254
sending party, security and integrity 7.311 and following
signature not linked to person 7.270
smart cards 7.263
symmetric cryptographic systems 7.207
technical overview 7.203
weakest link 2.265
Digital visual evidence presentation systems 2.83
Direct evidence 2.2, 2.8, 2.17, 2.45, 4.35, 6.68, 9.105, 9.134
Disclosure of digital data 2.26
audio tapes, discoverable 2.28
document, meaning 2.26 fn 1
procedure, proposed approach 5.264
speed camera photographs 2.7
Discovery, see disclosure
Distributed ledgers 1.25
audio tape, discoverable 2.28
computer database 2.31
current account ledger 2.31
data in digital form 2.8, 2.16
definition 2.32
definition, statutory 2.27
digital, primary evidence 2.53, 2.55, 2.56
facsimile transmissions 2.28
information recorded in an electronic medium 2.31
medium upon which information is stored 2.32
original 2.42, 2.43, 2.44, 2.45, 2.47, 2.50, 6.36, 6.41
standard, documentary evidence 6.110
tape recording 2.67, 2.14, 2.29
television film 2.28
teletext transmission 2.31
tombstone 2.26
visual reading 2.33
Documentary evidence 2.12 fn 3, 2.34, 2.60, 6.48, 6.76, 6.80, 6.102, 6.106, 6.107, 6.108, 6.110, 6.112
ACPO Good Practice Guide for Digital Evidence 9.9 fn 3, 9.17
analysis 1.123, 3.23, 4.33, 4.37, 5.25, 5.61, 5.252, 6.19 fn 1, 6.124, 9.1, 9.56, 9.68
authenticity 2.66
changes to evidence by IT administrators 9.17, 9.101
characteristics, Chapter 1 generally
challenging 4.37
circumstantial 6.98, 6.100, 6.125, 6.135, 9.35 see also Circumstantial evidence
classification 4.9, 4.15, 4.16, 4.18, 4.20, 4.27, 4.29
continuity of custody 3.60 fn 1, 5.243, 6.31 fn 2, 6.40, 6.60, 6.66, 6.67, 6.107, 6.131, 9.12, 9.14, 9.45, 9.130, 10.7
copies, probative value 9.34
disk, copying 9.72
real evidence and hearsay 2.13
digital form 2.16
evaluating 6.9, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, 6.13
examination 4.1, 4.24, Chapter 9 generally
files 1.66
first in time evidence 9.30, 9.31, 9.31, 9.33, 9.43, 9.48, 9.113 see also first instantiation
judicial 6.28
hiding data 9.127, 9.128, 9.131
human readable 1.87, 1.117, 1.118, 2.5, 2.8, 2.55
identifying 9.16
integrity 2.36, 2.66, 4.33, 5.242, 5.243, 6.1, 6.16, 6.37, 6.38, 6.109, 6.134, 9.13, 9.40, 9.45, 9.76, 9.81, 9.124, 9.130, 9.134, 9.135, 10.26
interpretation 9.103, 9.106, 9.136
investigation see Investigation and Chapter 9 generally
original 2.52, 2.54, 2.58, 6.36
probative value 2.76, 9.1, 9.23, 9.34, 9.40, 9.56, 9.138
provenance 1.116, 2.66, 3.28, 5.191, 5.196 fn 2, 5.210, 6.60, 6.76, 6.129, 7.7, 9.14, 9.15
solid-state drives 1.7, 1.23, 8.5, 9.20
tools 9.69
trail obfuscation 9.106, 9.131
understanding digital data, need to 9.68
unreliability 5.235, 5.236, 5.251
validating digital data 9.40
video surveillance footage 2.90
volatile evidence 9.12, 9.20, 9.22, 9.51
Electronic signature, Chapter 7 generally
abstract reliability test 7.201
abstract reliability test 7.201
case law see individual forms of electronic signature
Limitation Act 1969 (NSW) 7.155, 7.156
authenticate and adopt 7.1, 7.3, 7.15, 7.25, 7.30, 7.130, 7.165, 7.177, 7.268, 7.333
agent 7.117
attorney 7.117
bind organization 7.151
delegation 7.33
email 7.115
promise 7.178
ratify 7.34
without authority 7.22 fn 1, 7.36, 7.318
witness statement, denied 7.38 fn 1
automatic inclusion of signature 7.40
email 7.43 and following
facsimile transmission 7.41
SWIFT communications 7.46
Belgium, case law 7.192 fn 1
Bolero 7.237
bank 7.107
browse wrap 7.100
certification service provider, burden reversed 7.67
Electronic Communications Act 2000 7.61
Ministers to determine 7.72
digital signature 7.302, 7.330
due diligence, recipient 7.310
private key, denies using 7.296
relying party 7.107 fn 1
sending party, security and integrity of 7.311
weaknesses in PKI infrastructure 7.265
introduction 7.320
legal presumption 7.321
Seal Registration Certificate 7.325
PIN, asserted reversal, incorrect 7.261 fn 1
rubber stamp 7.302
Scotland 7.49 fn 4
Ceremony, importance of signing 7.229
name in email, electronic signature 7.115 fn 1
text message, signature in of loan of money 7.115 fn 1, 7.120
cipher (tuğra) of the Ottoman sultans 7.5 fn 1
dictionary definitions 7.4
voice 7.83
email 7.115 fn 1
dissolution, request for, sufficiency of electronic signature 7.114 fn 2
mortgage redemption, scanned manuscript signature 7.193
disputing 7.20
Scotland, position in 7.49
separate signature page 7.48, 7.49
England & Wales also see Scotland below
advanced electronic signature 7.67
electronic signature, see individual entries
burden of proof see Burden of proof
Electronic Communications Act 2000 7.51, 7.175
amended 7.51
certification 7.62, 7.65, 7.66
commencement of 7.51
definition of electronic communication 7.55
definition of electronic signature 7.9, 7.59, 7.75
disclosure of key, see Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000
elements of electronic signature 7.58, 7.59
general power 7.69
liability of a certification service provider 7.67
limitation of powers 7.70
modification of legislation 7.71
qualified electronic signature 7.51
Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000
definition of electronic signature for the purposes of the Act
disclosure of key 7.76
exclusion of electronic signatures 7.80
key 7.76
possession of a key 7.78
s 49 notice 7.76, 7.77, 7.79, 7.250
signature, statutory definition 7.9, 7.10
forged 7.20, 7.20 fn 1, 7.22, 7.35, 7.227
burden of proof 7.24
certificate revocation list 7.255
digital signature, should not be capable of being 7.227
electronic signature 7.37
facsimile transmission 7.22 fn 1
seal 7.312
forms of electronic signature 7.30 see 7.196
browse wrap 7.98
click wrap 7.90
digital signature 7.203
electronic sound 7.82
‘I accept’ 7.101
name in an email address 7.154
number 7.132
password 7.111
Personal Identification Number (PIN) 7.103
scanned manuscript signature 7.191
typing a name into an electronic document 7.114
France, case law 7.115 fn 1, 7.195
cautionary function 7.11 fn 1, 7.16
channelling function 7.18
primary evidential function 7.12
protective function 7.17
record-keeping function 7.19
secondary evidential function 7.15
email 7.115 fn 1
password 7.102
PIN 7.108
qualified electronic signature, monetary limit 7.237 fn 2
name in email address 7.168 fn 1, 7.190 fn 1
PIN falling into wrong hands 7.108 fn 7
holograph 7.140, 7.140 fn 2, 7.293
IdenTrust 7.237
intent 7.7, 7.15, 7.28, 7.38, 7.42, 7.90
cheque 7.27
evidence 7.38
Law Commission 7.177
not relevant 7.163
organizations 7.45
physical position, signature 7.165
pre-printed letterhead 7.180
printed words 7.168
statement made over telephone 7.86 fn 3, 7.88
subjective test 7.178
technology 7.180
United State of America 7.82. 7.85
legal fees arrangement 7.182
name in email address 7.126
European Arrest Warrant 7.132
name in email 7.115 fn 1
summary proceedings 7.190 fn 1
jitsuin 7.320
Seal Registration Certificate 7.324
ginko-in 7.320
mitome-in 7.320
admissibility of electronic signature 7.68
authenticate 7.177
intent, objective test proposed 7.177
Lithuania, PIN 7.103 fn2
meaning 7.3
confusion with digital signature 7.30, 7.32
social meaning 7.229
symbolic 7.14
stretch 7.86
Netherlands, The, DigiNotar 7.254
email, first name typed, evidence of intent to sign 7.38, 7.131
email, name typed at bottom 7.117
facsimile transmission 7.41
use of electronic without authority 7.33
Nigeria 7.108
Norway, PIN 7.107 fn 2
European Arrest Warrant 7.132
unique 7.109
Papua New Guinea 7.108
position of name 7.165
purpose of a signature 7.1, 7.8, 7.10, 7.12, 7.41, 7.75
Russian Federation, banking use of digital signatures 7.291 fn 2
document, separate signature pages 7.49
electronic facsimile 7.136 fn 1
exchange of emails 7.128
police force, electronic signature 7.134, 7.135
name in email address 7.161, 7.173, 7.178, 7.183
SWIFT 7.46
Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT) 7.46, 7.230 fn 3
electronic will 7.140 fn 4
name typed in email 7.129, 7.130
objective test 7.178
Canada, electronic signature 7.137
Kansas, electronic signature 7.84, 7.85, 7.86, 7.87
Kentucky, electronic signature 7.88
Statute of Frauds 1677 7.137 and following, 7.157 and following
SWIFT 7.46
Singapore 7.184
Tennessee, electronic signature 7.117
Turkey, PIN 7.107 fn 2
Model Law on Electronic Commerce 7.11 fn 1
Model Law on Electronic Signatures 7.11 fn 1, 7.30 fn 1, fn 3
‘browse wrap’ method 7.95, 7.98 fn 1
‘click’ method 7.90 fn 3
Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act
intent 7.82
forgery 7.202
PIN 7.103 fn 1, 7.108 fn 1
proof, importance of 7.93
Uniform Electronic Transactions Act, intent 7.85
Electronic sound, electronic signature 7.82, 7.83, 7.84, 7.85, 7.86, 7.87, 7.88, 7.89
authenticity 6.6, 6.7, 6.13, 6.17, 6.123, 6.124
circumstantial evidence 6.70
common network application 1.53
forged email 2.30 fn 3, 9.120 fn 6
integrity 6.6
truth of content 7.66, 7.285, 9.64
embedded devices 1.10
emojis 1.118
Encrypted data, Chapter 8 generally
Belgium, suspect required to disclose passcode 8.87
brute-force attack 8.6, 8.12, 8.77
burden of proof, not in possession of key 8.39
bypass encryption 8.67
ciphertext, decrypting 8.12
circumstantial evidence 8.32
circumventing encryption 8.4 fn 2, 8.77
circumventing a notice 8.41
cleartext 8.2
Court of Appeal, wrong basis for plea of guilty 8.35, 8.36
disclosure 8.8, 8.11, 8.13, 8.14
defence 8.28
form 8.20
notice 8.12
protected information and keys 8.21
secrecy and tipping off 8.38, 8.39
keylogging software 8.4, 8.5, 8.81 fn 3
deciphering 8.2
definition 8.23
exclusion 8.24
enciphering 8.2
evidential burden 8.27
encryption explained 1.95, 8.2
failure to comply with a notice 8.26
the human mind 8.45, 8.50, 8.57, 8.57 fn 4, 8.63
intangible psychological fact 8.52
legal burden, defence 8.27, 8.28, 8.39
presumption of possession 8.28
surrender, compelled 8.6
methods to obtain decrypted data 8.3
National Technical Assistance Centre 8.12
application refused 8.41, 8.42, 8.43, 8.44
requiring disclosure 8.12
passwords 8.3, 8.6, 8.35, 8.48. 8.53, 8.62
plaintext 8.2
compelling disclosure 8.14
defined 8.9
disclosure 8.21
key to 8.17
powers 8.10
presumption 8.26
requirement to describe 8.20
suspect 8.13
self-incrimination, privilege against 8.45 and following, 8.48, 8.52 fn 2, 8.90
sentencing 8.30 and following
standard of proof 8.31
United Kingdom statutory regime 8.8
United States of America, position in, see United States of America, encrypted data
vulnerability attack 8.4
Enhanced digital imagery 2.77
European Court of Human Rights, extraordinary conclusion 9.12, 9.13
Event data recorder 4.27
Evidence, contamination 1.119
Expert evidence by lay person 9.25 fn 1
Falsifying data see also Authentication
altered payslip 9.123
car parking 9.122
fictitious litigation 9.121
generally 9.120
tape recording 9.120
Faulty ATM software 5.77, 5.111
Fingerprint 7.233
biometric measurement 7.231
deterrence 7.234
secure private key 7.269
undermined 7.233
Firmware 1.14, 1.15, 4.37, 5.24, 5.65, 5.126, 5.134 fn 1, 5.183 fn 3, 5.186
access controls 9.47
analysis, judicial failure to understand 1.123
analysis, reliance on complex statistics software 1.100
changes, prevent 9.50
cloud 9.7
elements 9.10
empirical law 9.29
interference 9.130
preservation 6.67
principles 9.31
process 5.210
standards 9.8
computer simulation 1.105
digital data, validating 9.40
duplication 6.39
handling 9.10
HASH collisions 9.41, 9.42, 9.43
interpretation 9.2, 9.3, 9.25, 9.103, 9.106, 9.136, 10.22
Principle of Identifiable Interference 6.39
Principle of Non-interference 6.39
record actions, video 9.19
reporting 9.93
social context 9.104
standards 9.6, 9.9, 9.48, 9.140
tools 9.129
Forensic Science Regulator 9.6, 9.9
Forensic triage 9.17, 9.36, 9.37, 9.38, 9.39, 9.52
railway tickets 5.66
Handling digital evidence 9.8
copying electronic evidence 9.27
empirical laws 9.29
forensic copy 6.38, 6.39, 6.57
ACPO Good Practice Guide for Digital Evidence 9.8
Council of Europe 6.9
guidelines 9.9
gathering 9.19
International Organization on Computer Evidence 9.8
principles 9.7, 9.27, 9.31, 9.34, 9.50, 9.94, 9.140
tools 9.69 fn 4
computed 6.86 fn 1
court, failure to understand 9.13
files, comparison 5.62
implied assertions 3.28
invalidate 9.44
National Software Reference Library 9.43
one-way 9.40
purpose, investigations 9.32, 9.50
SHA-256 9.43
tools 9.130
Health records 5.164 fn 5
Hearsay see Chapter 3 generally
allocates risk of error 3.9
arbitrary nature of distinction 3.38, 3.40, 3.45
assertions 2.13, 3.26, 3.43, 3.44
auto-lab data analyser 4.33
automatic number plate recognition 3.17
blood sample 1.222, 4.33, 5.41, 5.222
business records 3.8
Category 1 3.12, 3.14, 3.15, 3.18, 4.20
Category 2 3.12, 3.16, 3.18, 3.19, 3.22, 3.24, 4.27
Category 3 3.12, 3.18, 3.21, 3.22, 3.26, 4.29
chromotograph 3.23
computer as a tool 3.22
computer systems and devices as a witness 3.26
confrontation, right to 3.6
criminal proceedings 3.33, 3.34, 3.35
digital data non-testimonial 3.11
direct assertions 3.67
discretion to exclude 3.64, 3.7
exceptions 3.7, 3.8, 3.31, 3.34
express assertions 3.34
European Convention of Human Rights 3.7
generally inadmissible 2.11
head of a pin 3.43
hearsay statement and evidence of a record of a transaction, difference 2.25
implied assertions 3.27, 3.28, 3.35
indirect assertions 3.67
intention to communicate 3.44, 3.45
Law Commission 3.47, 3.65, 4.31, 4.32, 4.25, 4.30
multiple hearsay 3.30, 3.33, 3.60
‘negative hearsay’ 3.32
non-testimonial 3.8, 3.22, 3.23, 3.24, 3.68
notice, requirement to give 3.30
out of court statements 6.112
photographs 3.17
presumption of reliability 3.20
printout, whether hearsay 2.23, 3.47, 4.23, 4.32, 4.33, 4.34
qualifying hearsay statement 3.44
rationale 3.2
recording of a fact 2.23
reliability 3.5, 3.10, 3.64, 3.24, 3.25, 3.29
reliability of the maker of a statement 3.63
representation of fact 3.37, 3.59
rule of hearsay exclusion 3.2
second-hand evidence 3.4
testability 3.24
testimonial evidence 3.13, 3.14, 3.18, 3.21, 3.22, 3.23, 3.24, 3.68
traditional definition 3.2
type of device 3.12
use made of the device 3.13
unintended assertions 3.45
United States, waning support 3.8
Video recordings 3.17
weakness of the rule 3.45
cryptography 9.127
Hidden data 9.128
deaths 5.77, 5.94 fn 3, 5.157, 5.158, 5.181, 5.187
deliberate faults 5.98
errors 6.69
faults of omission 5.98
garbage-in-garbage-out 5.91
guileless faults 5.98
input data flaws 6.69
malicious faults 5.98
mistakes 4.14, 5.21 fn 1, 5.74
operational errors 5.92
poor decisions 5.98
user interface errors 5.92
‘I accept’, as electronic signature 7.101, 7.201
digital imagery, legal guidelines 2.77
facial mapping 2.76
reliability 2.77
surveillance cameras 2.75
underlying scientific techniques 2.76
voice recognition 2.78
Inconsistent positive 6.19
Indirect evidence 2.2
Integrity see Authentication
Interactive virtual simulations 1.94
authenticity 1.106
juror perception influenced 1.106
seeing is believing 2.85
sway juries 2.97
Internet of Bodies 1.11
Internet of Things 1.10, 1.47, 6.99, 6.100
accuracy 5.218 fn 1
approval 5.219
defects, effect 10.19 fn 1
evidence of police officer 2.34, 2.35
presumption in working order 5.31, 5.32
accuracy 5.229 fn 1
admissibility 2.22, 2.24, 2.60
real evidence 2.12, 2.17, 2.22
reliability, challenge 5.224
statutory presumption 5.240, 5.251
Investigation 1.1 fn 1, 1.28, 1.93 Chapter 9 generally
abusive images of children 5.120
artificial intelligence 1.98
attribution of IP address 9.23 fn 2
audit 10.4
challenges 1.12
cloud computing 9.48
failure 9.99
forensic computer simulation software 1.105
forensic triage 9.36
guidelines 9.8
imaging 1.85
informed decisions 9.53
naivety of lawyers 1.123
proprietary tools 9.69
reliability of proof 9.1
reporting 9.93
uncover failure 5.87
Judicial notice 5.1, 5.2, 5.11, 5.14, 5.20, 6.71
accuracy cannot be questioned 5.17
amphometer 5.27
breath analysis devices 5.22, 5.22 fn 3
capacity for accuracy 5.43
criticisms 6.72
Facebook 6.72
incorrect assumptions 6.72
justification 5.18
location of cell phone 5.26 fn 1
maintenance 5.238
manner of programming 5.238
notorious or well-known technology 5.216, 6.71
question justice served if extended 5.19
rebuttal difficult 6.72
restricted 5.13
social media, incorrect generalization 6.74
Lawyers, requirement to keep up-to-date with technology 1.1
access logs 6.63, 6.95, 9.22, 9.83, 9.86
activity, recording 1.32, 1.33, 4.27
application log 9.81
audit logs 6.63, 6.95, 9.47, 10.25
authentication, purpose 6.63
error logs, known 5.264
integrity 9.81
network-based logs 9.81
program logs 1.86
purposes 1.42, 6.134, 9.23, 9.56
search logs 6.134
stored logs 1.39
wireless networks 1.41
Lost data, recover 9.118
transparency and explainability 1.107
Malfunction, relevance 2.38, 5.56
Malware for investigative purposes
German Constitutional Court 9.135 fn 1
protect users 9.136
Medical devices, Princess of Wales Hospital, prosecution of nurses 9.99
anti-computer forensics 9.103
application metadata 1.28
archival systems 6.76
authentication 6.81, 6.82, 6.83, 6.84, 6.91, 6.92, 6.93, 6.95, 6.108
best evidence 6.132
blockchain 6.89
Category 2 3.24
contamination, possibility 1.70
created automatically 1.69
deleting 1.72
description 1.67
direct evidence 2.8
email 1.73, 1.75, 6.124, 7.169
fallible 1.70
file metadata 1.20
identity metadata 6.81
IP address 6.7
indirect evidence 2.8
importance demonstrated 1.73
integrity, demonstrating 6.81, 6.82, 6.83, 6.84
interpretation 1.70
investigation 9.54, 9.82, 9.107, 9.124
manipulate 2.8
proof 2.9
records 2.56
relevant, indirect or direct 2.2
removal 9.101
social context 1.78
types 1.71
viewing 1.72
absence switched on 6.18 fn 4
accuracy of location 9.25 fn 1
backups, data retrieved 9.108
forensic download 5.51
identification data 1.43
position tracked 1.44
records admitted 3.29 fn 3
SIM 4.28
telephone, SIM, records, proof of location 1.43, 4.28, 5.26 fn 1
text messages, false claim 2.30 fn 3, 9.120 fn 6
text messages, proof of sending 5.227
Name in an email address, as electronic signature 7.154 and following, 7.182 and following
address 7.168 fn 2, 7.172
automatic inclusion of signature 7.42
identification 7.174
Limitation Act 1969 (NSW) 7.155, 7.156
Statute of Frauds 7.157 and following
National Air Traffic Services 5.129 fn 2
email 1.53
instant messaging 1.58
peer-to-peer 1.61
social networking 1.62
Networks 1.30
cellular networks 1.42
corporate intranets 1.40
intranet 1.40
Internet 1.31
Internet protocol address 1.33
wireless networking 1.41
Official websites, reliability of 2.26 fn 2
Operating system 1.16, 1.20, 1.29, 1.117, 5.104, 5.106, 9.69
Original 6.3
Bankers’ books 6.115
best evidence rule 6.32, 6.132
concept 1.25
defined 6.4
electronic data, concept of original 6.33, 6.34, 6.35, 6.36, 6.41, 6.60, 6.132
England and Wales Civil Evidence Act 1995 6.24
first in time version 9.30, 9.32, 9.34, 9.33, 9.43, 9.48, 9.113
secondary evidence 6.32
Password, as electronic signature 7.111, 7.112, 7.113
Personal Identification Number (PIN), as electronic signature 7.103
concept, as signature 7.106
function, banking context 7.103, 7.104, 7.105
Photograph 6.21
document, photograph of 6.115, 6.116, 6.117
secondary evidence 6.115
computer-generated graphical reconstructions 2.90, 2.92, 2.93
Preservation, methods 6.79, 6.80, 6.91, 6.101, 6.107, 6.133
Presumption see Reliability, common law presumption of and Reliability, statutory presumption of and Burden of Proof
photograph, negative 2.51
accuracy 2.38
assumptions 2.53
breath alcohol printout 2.22
disclosure of digital data 2.7
documentary evidence 2.24
evidence to prove a thing was done 2.21
evidence to prove something was recorded as being done 2.25
hearsay 2.17
incomplete data 2.25
real evidence 2.12
reliability 10.10
Processor 1.6
banker’s book 6.116
best evidence 6.32
business record 6.128
continuity 4.34
continuity of evidence 6.131
diplomatics 6.5
inconsistent positive 6.19
integrity of a system 6.51
judicial assumptions criticized 6.73
location, of SIM record 1.43, 4.28, 5.26 fn 1
negative 6.19
original 6.32
photograph 6.116
records management 6.53
self-authentication 6.61
system, compliance 6.47
validity of information 6.29
automatic number plate recognition 3.17
description 2.12
definition 2.12
difference between real evidence and hearsay 2.13
material objects 2.12
perception by the court 2.12
printout 2.17, 2.20, 2.21, 2.22, 2.23, 2.24 fn 2
printout, record of a fact 2.24
recording of credits and debits 2.25
things 2.12
Records see Business records
Recognition evidence. 2.75
number plate 1.103 fn 3, 3.17
Reliability, common law presumption of
accuracy, common experience 5.41
accuracy, condition to be fulfilled 5.43
accuracy, presumptions items accurate without evidence 5.9
accuracy of presumption never correctly tested 5.3, 5.5, 5.6 fn 1
accuracy, never tested 5.7
accuracy, operator of device sufficient to prove 5.46, 5.61
accuracy, scientific instruments 5.21, fn 1
accuracy, testing 5.42
amateur software writers, reliance on 5.99
anemometer 5.6 fn 1, 5.21 fn 1
aneroid 5.21 fn 1
assumptions, failure to substantiate 5.181, 5.126, 5.231, 5.242 fn 1
aura of infallibility 5.37
autopilot 5.143
basic fact, perquisite 5.213, 5.30, 5.23, 5.3
basic fact fails 5.243 fn 3
blood sample testing device 5.41
breath analysis devices 5.22, 5.22 fn 2, 5.125, 5.222, 5.224, 5.226, 5.229
burden of proof, allocation 5.3, 5.226, 5.227
burden of proof, reversed 5.169, 5.222 fn 3, 6.73
Canada, judicial notice 5.14, 5.15, 5.19
challenging 5.226 and following
audits 5.123, 5.124, 5.171, 5.255, 5.132, 5.262
bar for raising 5.254
disclosure of the software code 5.249, 5.259, 5.262
distinguish software and device 5.138
evidential burden 5.230, 5.243, 5.244
lack of foundation 5.228
persuasive burden 5.230
reliable enough 5.99
trial within a trial 5.189
well-known software not reliable 5.133
working properly 5.2, 5.7 fn 4, 5.37, 5.50, 5.86 fn 2, 5.130, 5.132, 5.218, 5.232, 5.233, 5.235, 5.242, 5.242 fn 1, 5.245, 5.246, 5.249, 10.12
circumstantial evidence, application of 5.3, 5.5
classification of software errors 5.78
failure of specification 5.83
human errors and biases 5.80
input data flaws 5.91
operational errors 5.92
unintended software interactions 5.85
Colorado Evidentiary Foundations 5.218
common law 5.1, 5.33, 5.48, 5.211, 5.222, 5.239, 5.247
computers reliable erroneous 5.238
confusion between common law and statutory presumption 5.220 fn 2
correct articulation 5.35
demonstrably incorrect 5.2 fn 1, 5.132, 5.142 fn 1, 5.165 fn 2, 5.212 fn 1
devices not permitted to be tested 5.22 fn 6
expediency 5.4
evidential foundation 5.35 and following
blood sample testing device 5.41
conditions that must be fulfilled 5.43, 5.48, 5.49, 5.50
‘correctness’ of the software program 5.42
errors immediately detectable 5.181 and following
‘bug’ 5.78, 5.79, 5.118, 5.153
hardware 5.8, 5.107, 5.108, 5.126, 5.134 fn 1, 5.229
hardware assumed to be at fault 5.181
not understood 5.108
software code 5.65, 5.76, 5.77
test software 5.97, 5.101, 5.116, 5.117
up-dates 5.109
accuracy of, no knowledge required 5.48, 5.51, 5.52, 5.61
not generally accepted 5.64 fn 1
Intoximeter see Intoximeter
judicial assessment of digital devices 5.40 and following
judicial assumptions 5.140
common knowledge 5.11, 5.27, 5.28, 5.29, 5.30, 5.40, 5.261
functioning correctly, inference 5.37
general experience 5.22
general experience, asserted 5.51
general experience, dubious intellectual claim 5.22 fn 2
generally accepted, belief in 5.27, 5.28
generally accepted by experts 5.43
judicial notice 5.11 and following
‘notorious’ class 5.20 and following
scientific or technical instruments 5.22
satellite navigation systems 5.26
software 5.261
notorious instrument 6.72
operating correctly, assertion without evidence 5.33, 5.34, 5.70
properly constructed 5.33, 5.34, 5.40, 5.70
failure to distinguish 5.137, 5.138
failure to establish accuracy of assertion 5.248
lawyer, lack of knowledge 5.249
meaning, failure of judiciary to define 5.235
reliable, asserted without evidence 5.41
reliable, explicit 5.169
reliable, failure to provide meaning 5.36
reliance without mentioning word 5.165 fn 2
trust experience, judges 5.140, 5.142
trust experience, lay people 5.139
unsubstantiated assertion 5.128
substantial correctness 5.3, 5.4
universally used and accepted 5.140
used correctly 5.8
well known, accuracy of computer devices 5.27, 5.41, 5.61, 5.154, 5.216
working properly 5.2, 5.37, 5.50, 5.130, 5.132, 5.218, 5.232, 5.233, 5.235, 5.242, 5.245, 5.246, 5.249
working order 5.27, 5.29, 5.30, 5.23, 5.33, 5.34, 5.35, 5.39, 5.229
common law presumption 5.1, 5.2, 5.211, 5.214, 5.228, 5.232, 5.224
influence beyond England and Wales 5.1 fn 1
presumption demonstrated to be incorrect, 5.2 fn 1, 5.142 fn 1, 5.212 fn 1
loadometer 5.21
mechanical instruments 5.2, 5.2, 5.6, 5.11, 5.65, 5.216
accuracy 5.5
absence of evidence 5.21 fn 1, 5.32, 5.33, 5.242
correct articulation 5.35
crude assumption 5.214
in order at material time 5.4
justification 5.4
lack of evidence to justify 5.213
maintenance, lack of concern by judges and lawyers 5.27
presumption 5.211
reliance on presumption 5.29, 5.32
miscarriage of justice, reliance on reliability of computer systems 5.169
mobile telephone calls 6.17 fn 1
no requirement to understand software 5.52
pedometer 5.21 fn 1
presumption of innocence, undermined 5.222 fn 3, 5.234
proof of reliability 5.42, 5.241
purpose 5.3
reintroduction 5.221
rationale 5.3, 5.4, 5.222, 5.249, 5.261
reliable, a delusion 5.213
reliable, failure of judicial explanation 5.235
reliance of presumption 5.39
satellite navigation system 5.26
scales 5.9
scientific evidence, lack of 5.4
scientific instruments 5.6, 5.21, 5.43, 5.44, 5.59, 6.72
SMS messages 6.17 fn 1
software code 5.42, 5.61, 5.225, 5.248
discovery failed 5.64
errors through modification 5.102
source code 5.24
unreliable 5.129
well-known not reliable 5.133
speed measuring devices 5.7, 5.215, 5.222, 10.17
statutory presumption 5.219 and following
accuracy 5.7, 5.7 fn 5, 5.8 fn 2, 5.21 fn 1
opinion evidence, whether 5.6
symmetries 5.128
testing 5.7 fn 1
truth 5.6
thermometer 4.12, 4.14, 5.6 fn 1, 5.21 fn 1, 5.22 fn 2
The Science of Judicial Proof 5.58
traffic lights 5.154
trained operator, considered sufficient 5.55
trial by machine 5.36
tyres, pressure 5.8
user sufficient to establish reliability 5.48
weighbridge, accuracy of readings 5.3
Wigmore on Evidence 5.44, 5.59
‘working properly’ 5.232
Reliability, statutory presumption of 5.219
breathalyser devices 5.129, 5.221
confusion with common law presumption 5.220 fn 2
satellite navigation system 1.33 fn 1, 5.17, 5.26, 6.16, 7.91, 9.62
scanned manuscript signature, as electronic signature 7.191 and following
best evidence 2.42, 2.44, 2.46, 6.32
civil proceedings, admissibility 2.59, 2.61
copy of the original 2.65
criminal proceedings 2.64
differentiation 2.49
exception 6.32
material objects 2.51
metadata 2.56
original, failure to produce 2.45, 2.50
photocopying 2.50
Signature, what it cannot do 7.259
Silk Road 1.50
Simulations, computer-generated 1.104, 2.83
assumptions and premises 2.86, 2.92 fn 1, 2.95, 2.97
authenticity 1.106
juror perception influenced 1.106
seeing is believing 2.85
testimonial evidence 2.85
application software 1.17
assumption software cannot fail 5.181
backward compatible or ‘downward compatible’ 1.121, 6.62
firmware 1.15
forensic, no error rate 5.63
Common Criteria for Information Technology Security Evaluation 5.121, 5.123
Common Methodology for Information Security Evaluation 5.123
DO-178B, Software Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification 5.125
FIPS-140 Information Technology Security Evaluation Criteria 5.121
ISO 13485:2016 Medical devices – Quality management systems – Requirements for regulatory purposes 5.125
symmetry 5.127
system software 1.16
anti-virus software, limitations 5.114
‘automatic’ correspondence not automatic 4.26
challenging 4.37
changes, affecting code 5.83, 5.102, 5.106, 5.175, 5.215, 5.134 fn 1
GNU Bash 5.105 fn 1
Heartbleed 5.105
operating system 5.65, 5.106, 5.237
Shellshock vulnerability 5.214
Stuxnet virus 5.115
content written by one or more people 3.14, 4.19, 4.20, 4.23
records generated by the software that have not had any input from a human 3.16, 4.19, 4.27
records comprising a mix of human input and calculations generated by software 3.21, 4.19, 4.29
comments by programmer 4.8
complex software systems 5.99
correct service 5.73
development 5.93, 5.95 and following
errors 5.66 and following
errors, classification 5.78
failure of software, reasons 5.76 and following
fit for purpose, incorrect judicial pronouncement 5.103, 5.104
free of faults 5.120
hearsay Chapter 3 generally; Chapter 4 generally
hidden errors 2.37
imperfect 5.71
inherent design faults 5.138
instructions 2.23 fn 3, 4.5, 4.6, 4.11, 4.21, 4.31, 4.34
joint statement 4.3
‘correctness’ of the software program 5.21 fn 1, 5.41
fail to distinguish 5.40
maintenance of software 5.93
modification of software 5.102
nature of software 4.5
nuclear industry, safety and security 5.112
operation of software 5.93
quality control 5.34 fn 1, 5.96
raw data, hearsay 4.31
security vulnerabilities 5.109, 5.111, 5.112, 5.113, 5.264
source code 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7
standards 5.121
inadequate to uncover errors 5.83 fn 3, 5.116
no comprehensive test 5.83 fn 3
unreliable, continue to be 5.129, 5.138
user, instructions 7.238
verifiably correct results 5.107, 5.246
vulnerabilities 5.109
well-known not reliable 5.133
witness, as the Chapter 4 generally
zero day exploits 5.109, 5.112
Software errors 5.66 and following
‘bug’ bounty programme 5.118
classification 5.78 and following
common 5.126
complexity 5.85
development process 5.95
deviation 5.73
aviation 5.143
banking 5.171
emergency services 5.161
financial products 5.148
interception of communications 5.178
medical 5.163
motor vehicles 5.154
Post Office Horizon scandal 5.165 and following, 6.55, 6.56
power outage 5.87
stockbrokers 5.151
errors 5.2, 5.23, 5.24, 5.38, 5.64, 5.66, 5.72, 5.84, 5.87, 5.95, 5.213, 5.214
ATM 5.74
classification 5.78
common 5.126
data 5.94
described as deviation 5.73
human 5.80
human factors 5.57
immediately detectable 5.181
increasing the risk 5.102
input data flaws 5.91
interface 5.164
industry knows software is not error free 5.133, 5.136
manipulate 5.104
modification 5.102
operational errors 5.92
primary cause 5.96
programme 5.95 fn 1
programmers 5.107
specification, failure of 5.83
standards 5.125
time 5.86 fn 2
unintended software interactions 5.85
user interface 5.92
failure, discontinuous 5.75
flaw 5.78, 5.79, 5.104, 5.105, 5.107, 5.164 see also errors
functional fault 5.78
immediately detectable 5.181, 5.212, 5.233
inherent problems 5.100
mistake 5.77, 5.79, 5.98, 5.116
National Aeronautics and Space Administration 5.80 fn 1, 5.183
nature 5.66
personal use assumes reliability 5.99
quality control 5.96
reliability asserted without proof 5.116 fn 1
result from input errors 5.181
specification, failure 5.79, 5.83
air traffic control systems 5.77
baggage handling systems 5.77
death, causing 5.53 fn 1, 5.77, 5.77 fn 7, 5.94 fn 3, 5.155, 5.157, 5.158, 5.259, 5.160 fn 1, 5.181, 5.187
dispensing more cash 5.77
incorrect records 5.77
imprisonment 5.165 fn 2
injury, causing 5.77, 5.94, 5.157, 5.160 fn 1, 5.181, 5.187, 5.259
miscalculating assets 5.77
nuclear war averted twice 5.89
overtime incorrect 5.100
unintended acceleration 5.94, 5.155, 5.181, 5.183, 5.259 fn 2, fn 3
defective seismic programs 5.181
Failure Prediction 5.107
interactions between individual components 5.19, 5.79, 5.85, 5.145
machine-learning systems 5.90
probability of failure 5.102, 5.107, 5.138
proprietary software code 5.96, 5.104
reasons 5.77
security protocol, failure 5.111
amateurs 5.99
lack of knowledge 5.96
programmer errors, causation 5.72
financial sector 4.29
human and software input 4.29
missing data 9.101
Spyware 9.126 fn 1, 9.135, 9.136
best evidence civil proceedings 2.64
best evidence, criminal proceedings 2.64
Starting a computer 1.29, 1.119
blockchain 1.25
distributed storage 1.25
Tachographs 3.57
Tanpınar, Ahmet Hamdi 9.60 fn 1
Taylor, Dr John C 9.60 fn 1
Television film 2.28
admissibility, electronic document 2.61
corroborate, device acts to 10.17
declaration 2.10
eyewitness 1.124
hearsay 3.4
machine testimony 4.1 fn 1, 5.245
means of proof 2.10
object tendered 2.36
oral 2.34
photograph 2.67 fn 1
perceptions 2.33
recording erased 2.45
satellite system, accuracy 5.26
video recording 2.76
Testimonial evidence 2.45, 2.60, 2.64, 2.73, 3.6, 3.8, 3.13
Text message, driver causing death 5.227
Thomas, Dylan 9.60 fn 1
Time stamps 1.18, 1.20, 1.57, 6.60, 7.276
alter data 9.124
anonymity protection 9.131
appropriate 9.69
automated 9.70
common 9.30
copying the hard drive 9.75
criminals using 9.103
cross-examine 9.69
dual use nature 9.135
encryption 9.20, 9.26, 9.80, 9.89
evidence acquisition boot disk 9.74
fallible 9.71
falsification, challenges 9.126
filesystem encryption keys 9.119
free 9.140
generally 9.77, 9.79, 9.111, 9.130, 9.136, 9.140
hiding data 9.129
imaging 9.76
messages, read 9.88
necessary to investigate devices 9.77
passwords 9.80
privacy protection 9.125
question underlying scientific methodology 9.69
recovering data 9.52 fn 1, 9.78
relevant 9.40
reliability challenged 5.48 and following
software based 9.107
software program, analysis irrelevant in legal 5.52 and following
tested 9.70
training 9.105
viewing the data 9.77
XRY 5.48
files 9.82
Internet 9.20, 9.23, 9.28, 9.49, 9.54, 9.81, 9.83, 9.87, 9.90, 9.93, 9.97, 9.131, 9.136, 9.138
logs see Logs
network connections 9.28, 9.81
printing 9.82
private browsing 9.85
social networks 9.90
VoIP 9.91
Traffic information tickets 2.6
Trail obfuscation 9.106, 9.131
authenticity, prima facie case 5.193
balance of probabilities 5.192, 5.193
beyond reasonable proof 5.192 fn 1
challenging authenticity 5.189
rare 5.205
scope, judge to set out 5.207
standard of proof 5.193, 5.197
Trojan horse 5.68, 5.113, 9.131, 9.132, 9.134, 9.135
Trusted Computing 9.136, 9.139
Typing a name into an electronic document, as electronic signature 7.114 and following
email 7.115, 7.117 and following
informal name 7.149
signature 7.149
Statute of Frauds 7.137, 7.138
text message 7.120
wills 7.139 and following
Manual for Complex Litigation 5.213
encrypted data 8.55 and following
assist in circumventing encryption 8.77
biometric measurement 8.72
compelled testimonial 8.57, 8.57 fn 4, 8.58
decryption, compelled 8.59, 8.60, 8.66, 8.68, 8.71, 8.71 fn 1, 8.76, 8.81 fn 1, 8.88
Fifth Amendment 8.56, 8.62, 8.63, 8.67, 8.71
forgone conclusion 8.48, 8.60, 8.66, 8.68, 8.69
iPhone protected by passcode 8.76, 8.82
nontestimonial 8.63
privilege against self-incrimination 8.55, 8.57, 8.58, 8.59, 8.72
biometric measurement 8.73
compelled 8.57
hard drive, decryption and production 8.63
produce documents 8.59
testimony from the defendant 8.45, 8.63, 8.70
Federal Rules of Evidence 5.123, 6.31, 6.61 fn 2
Manual for Complex Litigation 5.213
self-authentication 6.61, fn 2
trade secret privilege 5.200 fn 1
analysis 9.6
body-worn video camera 1.103, 3.52, 3.55
clips 1.62
clock gap between ATM 9.58
facial mapping 2.76
store video recorded, erased 2.45
surveillance footage 2.90, 9.56, 9.57, 9.58, 9.61
testimonial, in lieu 2.73
time stamp 9.59
wills 7.148 fn 2
Virtual reality 1.104
authenticity 1.106
juror perception influenced 1.106
sway juries 2.97
criminal trial, directions of judge 2.72
no fixed rules 2.71
Wigmore, John Henry, hostility to trade secret privilege 5.200 fn 1
electronic 4.23
electronic signature 7.139 and following
Witnesses see Chapter 10 generally
assertion of working properly by lay witness 10.20
competence, knowledge, qualifications 10.1, 10.28
competence of procedures 10.7, 10.20
computer malfunction and touching wood 10.7 fn 1, 10.12
computer reliability, qualified to testify 10.4, 10.4, 10.17
continuity of evidence 10.7
data reliability 1.4
degree of expertise will vary 10.19
forensic examination without relevant knowledge or expertise 10.21
incorrect witness 10.6
independence 10.23
knowledge, balance 10.27
knowledge, insufficient 10.22
knowledge with experience 10.21
knowledge, without 6.55, 6.64, 10.1, 10.20, 10.21
not qualified 9.25 fn 1, 10.20, 10.21
not working properly, declined to hear evidence 10.19
original, attest 6.32
qualifications 6.28, 10.19 and following
qualified without knowledge of software code 5.47
reliability, no knowledge to testify 10.6
reliance on output of computer system 10.8
relevant knowledge, lack of 10.21