Introduction
Figure 1. | El Quadro de Historia Natural, Civil y Geográfica del Reyno del Perú, año de 1799. A high-quality image of the Quadro is available for viewing on the Google Arts and Culture platform: https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/quadro-de-historia-natural-civil-y-geogr%C3%A1fica-del-reyno-del-per%C3%BA-jos%C3%A9-ignacio-de-lequanda/igE86USP5Q1cYg?hl=es
Figure 2. | LAGLOBAL research team examines El Quadro del Perú in the offices of the National Museum of Natural Sciences, Madrid.
Codex Mendoza
Figure 1. | The Codex Mendoza, c. 1541, Mexico City, folio 2r. Manuscript Selden A.1., Bodleian Library, Oxford (public domain).
Macuilxóchitl
Figure 1. | Painted map of Macuilxóchitl.
Figure 2. | Painted map of Macuilxóchitl, detail.
Potosí
Figure 1. | Francisco J. Mendizábal, Cerro Rico and Villa Imperial de Potosí with reservoirs supplying water to mills, c.1755–75.
Figure 2. | ‘These Indians are guayrando’, c.1603.
Figure 3. | The Cerro Rico with a water-powered stamp mill and amalgamation bins in the foreground, c.1603.
Figure 4. | Detail from Gaspar Miguel de Berrío showing refining mills along the Ribera gulch, 1758.
Figure 5. | A c.40 kg Potosí silver bar from the 1622 wreck of the Atocha off the Florida Keys.
Figure 6. | Potosí’s registered silver production (yellow) and mint production (red) from discovery in 1545 to 1821.
Figure 7. | Pedro de Cieza de León, Cerro de Potosí (Seville, 1553).
Figure 8. | English rendering of Cieza’s Cerro Rico, 1581, as frontispiece for a translation of Agustín de Zárate’s Discovery and Conquest of the Provinces of Peru.
Figure 9. | Tarih-i Hindi-i Garbi, c.1580.
Figure 10. | Theodor de Bry, Historiae Americae VI (1601).
Figure 11. | Matteo Ricci and Li Zhizao, world map, c.1602.
Figure 12. | Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, Plus Ultra, the Inca: ‘I am the support for your columns’, c.1590 Guaman Poma de Ayala in Martín de Murúa, Historia del origen y geneología real de los reyes Incas del Perú (Galvin ms.).
Figure 13. | Arnoldus Montanus, Cerro Rico of Potosi (c.1671).
Figure 14. | Herman Moll, map of South America and Cerro Rico of Potosí (1712).
Figure 15. | The Virgin of the Cerro Rico of Potosí (c.1680).
Figure 16. | Melchor Pérez Holguín, Entry of the Archbishop-Viceroy Morcillo, 1716.
Figure 17. | The Virgin of Charity on a silver pedestal fashioned in Potosí or La Plata, dated 1719.
Figure 18. | The Cerro Rico of Potosí, 1772, with modern Berrío adit at left.
Figure 19. | Medal commemorating Simón Bolívar’s arrival in Potosí, 1825.
Piece of Eight
Figure 1. | Piece of eight with Plus Ultra pillars, Potosí mint, 1663.
Figure 2. | Silver cob or piece of eight; Potosí mint before 1617.
Figure 3. | Silver pillar dollar or piece of eight, Mexico, 1770. Public domain.
Figure 4. | The obverse of a 1797 coin showing the bust of Charles IV (left); the obverse of a 1810 coin with the bust of Ferdinand VII, possibly from Mexico (right).
Figure 5. | Charles III silver dollar minted in Santiago de Chile (1784), stamped with Chinese merchant marks.
Figure 6. | Charles III piece of eight from 1801, minted in Mexico and countermarked with the stamp of Cromford Mills in Derbyshire.
Figure 7 | Charles III piece of eight from 1782, minted in Mexico and countermarked with the stamp of Ballindalloch Cotton Works in Scotland.
Figure 8. | Ferdinand VI piece of eight, minted in Mexico (possibly), altered into a love token.
Pieza de Indias
Figure 1. | M. Chambon, Le commerce de l’Amerique par Marseille (Avignon, 1764), vol. 2, plate 11, facing 400 (in Slavery Images: A Visual Record of the African Slave Trade and Slave Life in the Early African Diaspora; licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0.
Rubber
Figure 1. | Christoph Weiditz, Authentic Everyday Dress of the Renaissance (New York: Dover, 1994). In Trachtenbuch, Nachdruck der Ausgabe (Berlin, 1927).
Figure 2. | Hevea brasiliensis, collected by Adolpho Ducke in 1933.
Figure 3. | Photographs by Luiz de Castro Faria, 1938.
Silver Basin
Figure 1. | Baptismal silver basin.
Feathered Shield
Figure 1. | Yacatecuhtli (Florentine Codex, chapter 19, fol. 17r).
Figures 2 and 3. | Feathered shields, Aztec, c.1520 Inv. [E 1402] Friedrich I of Württemberg (1557–1608).
Figure 4. | Detail from Codex Durán, chapters 9, 10 and 11, laminate 7 (1867).
Figure 5. | Unknown artist, Triumphal Entry of America, 29.9 × 55.5 cm (Klassik Stiftung Weimarer/Graphische Sammlung, KK207).
Figure 6. | De Bry, Quae pompa delecta ad regem deferatur (1591).
Black
Figure 1. | Somerset House Conference, 1604.
Figure 2. | Portrait of Hasekura Rokuemon Tsunenaga, 1615, in prayer, wearing typical Habsburg court attire during his travels from Sendai to the Vatican.
Figure 3. | Haematoxylum campechianum in a 19th-century botanical guide (public domain).
Figure 4. | Chips of Haematoxylum campechianum wood before chemical treatment.
Figure 5. | Juan de Pareja, enslaved, painted by his Spanish master Diego Rodríguez de Silva y Velázquez in 1650, likely in Rome. This image reveals that Habsburg black-hued fashion had currency in the mid 17th century. However, this was not to last and was already in decline throughout some parts of Europe under French influence. Diego Rodríguez de Silva y Velázquez, Portrait of Juan de Pareja (Metropolitan Museum of Art; public domain).
Figure 6. | An early 1700s genealogy commissioned by a branch of a Tetzcoco indigenous aristocratic dynasty in central Mexico, revealing changing fashions over the centuries – from the bottom preconquest, to the black-clad 16th century, to the more colourful 17th and 18th centuries. Nr. IV Ca 3011.
Figure 7. | By the 19th century, many men in the European sphere of influence had once again adopted black coats and breeches, along with white collars, to project gravity, self-control and austerity. Here is an example of two wealthy French brothers. Men’s fashion today remains remarkably similar. Hippolyte-Jean Flandrin, René-Charles Dassy and His Brother Jean-Baptiste-Claude-Amédé Dassy, 1850 (Cleveland Museum of Art; public domain).
Figure 8. | Dutch designer Catharina Kruysveldt-de Mare confectioned this cocktail dress for Balenciaga in Paris, 1951. Balenciaga’s works, deeply influenced by Habsburg courtly fashions, continue to shape our dress and culture today. Catharina Kruysveldt-de Mare, ‘Dress with a Tie Belt’, (c.1951–2, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam; public domain).
Spanish Deck
Figure 1. | Jean Pouns. Decks of cards for export to Spain, 18th century (Museo Fournier de Naipes de Álava; public domain).
Figure 2 | Dragon (detail). Mexican cards – printing tests of cards made in Mexico, corresponding to the contract of Alonso Martinez de Orteguilla (F. Flores, 1583). AGI-MP-MEXICO 73-4r (public domain).
Figure 3. | Royal certificate restoring 12,000 gold pesos to Hernán Cortés for fines paid relative to card playing. Marzo 11 1530-AGI PATRONATO,16, N. 2, R. 20–1 (public domain).
Figure 4. | Printing tests of cards made in Mexico, corresponding to the contract of Alonso Martinez de Orteguilla (F. Flores, 1583). AGI-MP-MEXICO 73-4r (public domain).
Figure 5. | Moctezuma and Cuauhtémoc cards. Printing tests of cards made in Mexico, corresponding to the contract of Alonso Martinez de Orteguilla (F. Flores, 1583). AGI-Mapas, Mexico 73-4r (public domain).
Mary’s Armadillo
Figure 1. | Detail of the Cavendish Hanging embroidered by Mary, Queen of Scots (Oxburgh Hall, Norfolk; on loan from the Victoria and Albert Museum, inv. T.30-1955; public domain).
Figure 1. | Portrait of Lady María Luisa de Toledo and anonymous native companion. Attributed to Antonio Rodríguez Beltrán, Viceroyalty of New Spain, c.1670. Oil on canvas, 209 × 128 cm.
Figure 2. | Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, Andrés de Islas, Viceroyalty of New Spain, 1772. Oil on canvas, 105 × 84 cm.
Figure 3. | Detail with ‘trident sign’ or separation of the middle and ring fingers.
Clay Vessels
Figure 1. | Tonalá búcaro, c.1675 (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Sansbury-Mills Fund, 2015; public domain).
Figure 2. | The curato of Tonalá and subordinate towns, 1772, produced by the alcalde or mayor Agapito Martínez. The map became part of general report on curatos or parishes of the dioceses of Nueva Galicia submitted to the Council of the Indies by the president of the Audiencia of Guadalajara, Eusebio Sánchez (Archivo General de Indias, Mapas-Mexico, 285; public domain).
Figure 3. | Diego Velázquez, detail of Las Meninas (Prado Museum; public domain).
Figure 4. | Alonso Sánchez Coello, Doña Juana de Mendoza, duquesa de Béjar, con un enano, (Madrid, 1585; Marqués de Griñon Collection; public domain).
Figure 5. | Lope Felix de Vega Carpio, La Dorothea (Madrid, 1634; public domain).
Figure 6. | Lorenzo Magalotti, Delle lettere familiari, 2 vols. (Florence, 1769; public domain).
Figure 7. | Giuseppe Recco, Bodegón con sirviente, 1679. The painting depicts a Seville collection of New World búcaros along with an African house slave (Fundación Casa Ducal Medinaceli; public domain).
Singing Violin
Figure 1. | Francisco Solano, ‘Sun of Peru’, as violinist. Pedro Rodríguez Guillén, Sol y año feliz del Perú San Francisco Solano, apostol y patron universal de dicho reyno (Madrid, 1735; public domain).
Figure 2. | Francis of Lima and Assisi. Lima as Rome. Pedro de Alva y Astorga, Naturæ prodigium gratiæ portentum: hoc est Seraphici P. N. Francisci vitæ acta ad Christi D. N. (Madrid, 1651; public domain).
Figure 3. | Solano, Peruvian apostle of Indians and Africans. Detail of frontispiece, Alonso Briceño. Prima pars celebriorum controuersiarum in primum sententiarum Ioannis Scoti (Madrid, 1642; public domain).
Figure 4. | Solano, the Peruvian St Francis, turns a rampaging, murderous bull into a pet. Anonymous, Francisco Solano (1652, Museo de Santa Clara, Bogotá; public domain).
Figure 5. | Solano and the canonisation in Rome of eight saints (1726). Jacobi a Marchi, Theatraum canonizationis Francisci Solani (Archivo de Simancas, MPD 26, 25; public domain).
Figure 6. | Solano and March on their Flemish altar (1728). Pieter Balthazar Bouttats and Michiel van der Voort, Prospectus Altaris sub Canonizationis Solemniis SS Jacobi à Marchia et Francisci Solani Ordinis Minorum Erecti Antverpiae in Ecclesia FF Minorum Recollectorum (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, RP-P-OB-82.786; public domain).
Figure 7. | Extant relic of Solano in Flanders (Museum De Mindere, Sint-Truiden, Belgium, MVM/OFM/R414; public domain).
Figure 8. | Cologne treatise on March and Solano as Joshua and Caleb (public domain).
Mestizo Memory Palaces
Figure 1. | Mnemonic alphabet in Nahuatl, Purépecha and Otomí. Diego de Valadés, Rhetorica christiana (Perugia, 1579).
Figure 2. | Informe auténtico de la portentosa demonstración de sabiduría que hizo en México el Padre Presentado Fray Francisco Naranjo, de la Orden de Santo Domingo, criollo de la dicha Ciudad (Mexico City, 1632; public domain).
Figure 3. | Report of Francisco Gutiérrez Naranjo, resident of Mexico City, on testimonies (Mexico, 1636; public domain).
Figure 4. | A Franciscan among the Chichimecas. Valadés, Rhetorica christiana.
Figure 5. | Aztec calendrics as mnemonic device. Valadés, Rhetorica christiana.
Figure 6. | Mnemonic landscape as natural and civil history. Valadés, Rhetorica christiana.
Figure 7. | Testerian manuscript, 1524 (CARSO, Mexico; public domain).
Figure 8. | Satan, hell and Nahua sinners. Valadés, Rhetorica christiana.
Figure 9. | ‘Huexotzinco Codex’, 1531 (Library of Congress; public domain).
Figure 10. | Mexico within the Great Chain of Being. Valadés, Rhetorica christiana.
Creole Cabinet
Figure 1. | Façade of Goyeneche Palace in Madrid, premises of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando and the Royal Cabinet of Natural History.
Figure 2. | Floors, elevations and profiles of the edifice of the Prado Museum, designed and executed by Don Juan de Villanueva, Senior Architect to His Majesty and to the City of Madrid, etc. (1796, Museo del Prado, D006406).
Figure 3. | The Creole Cabinet Haunts the Prado Museum, Historias Naturales, M.Á. Blanco (Museo Nacional del Prado, 2013–2014; photo by M. Thurner).
Modern Quipu
Figure 1. | Yacapar quipu (photo by W.P. Hyland).
Figure 2. | Sacred archive with goat-hide folders with manuscripts (photo by S. Hyland).
Figure 3. | Collata quipu pendants (photo by S. Hyland).
Inca Mummy
Figure 1. | Detail of San Martín’s embalmed Inca ancestor, plate 6. Thomas Joseph Pettigrew, A History of Egyptian Mummies (London: Longman, 1834).
Figure 2. | ‘The eleventh month, November; Aya Marq’ay Killa, month of carrying the dead’. Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno (1615), 256 [258].
Figure 3. | The Defunct Inca Guayna Capac, Illapa, being carried to Cuzco from Quito. Guaman Poma de Ayala, Nueva corónica, 377 [379].
Xilonen
Figure 1. | Bust of an Aztec Priestess. Alexander von Humboldt, Vues des cordillères et monuments des peuples indigènes de l’Amérique, plate 1 (Paris: Schoell, 1810–13).
Figure 2. | Temple of Hathor at Dendera. V. Denon, Voyage dans la basse et la haute Égypte (1802).
Machu Picchu
Figure 1. | The Ruins of the Ancient Inca Capital, Machu Picchu, Hiram Bingham, 1912.
Amazon
Figure 1. | S. Fritz, ‘The Marañon or Amazon River, with the Jesuit Mission’, 1707.
Figure 2. | H. Hondius, Americae Pars Meridionale, 1638.
Figure 3. | N. Sanson d’Abbeville, Amerique Meridionale, 1650.
Figure 4. | Anonymous, Mapa del río Amazonas y su cuenca, in Martín de Saavedra, Descubrimiento del Río Amazonas y sus dilatadas provincias, 1639.
Figure 1. | Manucodiata or bird of paradise. In J.E. Nieremberg, Historia naturae, maxime peregrinae (Antwerp: Plantin-Moretus Press, 1635).
Emeralds
Figure 1. | Mughal emerald amulet.
Figure 2. | The Llanos from the emerald mines of Somondoco (today Chivor), Colombia (photo by K. Lane).
Figure 3. | Muisca votive objects in cast gold with inset emeralds.
Figure 4. | The Crown of the Andes, Popayán, Colombia, 17th–18th centuries.
Figure 5. | Habsburg emerald cluster, 16th century.
Figure 6. | ‘Moor’ with c.1581 emerald cluster, 1724; https://skd-online-collection.skd.museum/Details/Index/117440.
Figure 7. | Emerald Watch from the Cheapside Hoard.
Figure 8. | Shah Jahan and his emeralds.
Figure 9. | Lady with a Lotus Petal, c.1760. Note the emeralds blended with pearls and rubies.
Figure 10. | Mughal protective amulet inscribed with Throne Verse (Qur’an 2:255).
Figure 11. | Mughal inscribed emerald cup.
Figure 12. | The Topkapı Dagger, c.1746.
Figure 13. | Persia’s Nadir Shah after the 1739 sack of Delhi.
Figure 14. | Jewelled globe with emerald seas.
Pearls
Figure 1. | Baroque pearl (public domain).
Figure 2. | Nicolás de Cardona, Descripciones geográficas e hidrográficas de muchas tierras y mares del norte y sur en las Indias.
Figure 3. | Cardona, Descripciones geográficas e hidrográficas.
Figure 4. | Cardona, Descripciones geográficas e hidrográficas.
Figure 5. | Title page, Cardona, Descripciones geográficas e hidrográficas.
Cochineal
Figure 1. | Harvesting cochineal. José Antonio Alzate y Ramírez, ‘Memoria sobre la naturaleza, cultivo y beneficio de la grana’ [1777], published in the Gazeta de Literatura, 12 May 1794.
Figure 2. | Two cochineal bags, filled with red dots, are represented bottom left. Codex Mendoza, MS Arch. Selden A.1, fol. 43r, c. 1540.
Figure 3. | Hans Sloane, ‘The manner of propagating, gathering & curing ye Grana or Cochineel, done by an Indian in the Bishoprick of Guaxaca in the Kingdom of Mexico in America’, Voyage to Jamaica, vol. 2, plate 9, 1725.
Figure 4. | Instruments employed in the preparation of the dye. José Antonio Alzate y Ramírez, ‘Memoria sobre la naturaleza, cultivo y beneficio de la grana’ [1777], published in the Gazeta de Literatura, 9 August, 1794. .
Opossum
Figure 1. | Opossum (tlaquatzin) in J.E. Nieremberg, Historia naturae, maxime peregrinae (Antwerp: Plantin-Moretus Press, 1635).
Guinea Pig
Figure 1. | Marcos Zapata, The Last Supper, c.1753.
Figure 2. | Jan Brueghel, The Feast of Bacchus, c.1640 (Gemäldegalerie, Berlin; photo by H. Cowie).
Figure 3. | Vessels representing a cuy or rabbit of the Indies, one of the few domesticated animals in pre-Columbian America. Chimú culture, AD 1000–1470, ceramic, Peru (photo by H. Cowie).
Figure 4. | ‘Cui casero’, from Trujillo del Perú, vol. 6, plate 1.
Figure 5. | Cuyes, Pisac Market, 2015 (photo by H. Cowie).
Bezoar
Figure 1. | Panel of the Salvador cabinet designed by Josep Salvador i Riera (1690–1761) and containing the bezoars.
Figure 2. | Jar containing Lapis Bezoar ex Iguana.
Figure 3. | Section of the cupboard shelves.
Cacao
Figure 1. | Cacao blanco da Indiani overo Spagnioli. Pier’Antonio Michiel, I cinque libri delle piante, Libro azzurro It. II, 30 (=4864), f. 67r (su concessione del Ministero dei Beni e delle Attività Culturali e del Turismo – Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana. Divieto di riproduzione).
Figure 2. | Painted wall in the Convent of San Salvador, Malinalco, Mexico (photo by P. Mason, 2014).
Strawberry
Figure 1. | V. Albán, Native Nobleman of Quito in Festive Attire, 1783.
Figure 2. | V. Albán, Mestiza of Quito, 1783.
Figure 3. | V. Albán, Native Woman in Festive Attire, 1783.
Volcano
Figure 1. | Map of Old and New Guatemala with volcanos.
Figure 1. | A. von Humboldt and A.G. Bonpland, Geographie der Pflanzen in den Tropenländern, ein Naturgemälde der Anden.
Figure 2. | Continens Paradisi. A. de León Pinelo, El Paraiso en el Nuevo Mundo: comentario apologetic, historia natural, y peregrina de las Yndias Occidentales, yslas y tierra firme del mar océano (Madrid, 1656).
Figure 3. | The coat of arms of the Republic of Ecuador (public domain).
Anteater
Figure 1. | Studio of Rafael Mengs, His Majesty’s Anteater, 1776. Oil on canvas (Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales; photo by H. Cowie).
Figure 2. | ‘Oso hormiguero’, from Trujillo del Perú, vol. 6, plate 39.
Figure 3. | ‘Oso Palmera’, from Juan Bautista Bru de Ramón, Colección de láminas: que representan los animales y monstruos del Real Gabinete de Historia Natural, vol. 2, plate 53 (Madrid: Andrés de Sotos, 1786; courtesy of Patrimonio Nacional).
Figure 4. | ‘Le Tamanoir’, from G.L. Leclerc de Buffon, L’Histoire Naturelle, vol. 11, plate 29 (Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1764).
Megatherium
Figure 1. | J.B. Bru and M. Navarro, in J. Garriga, Descripción del esqueleto de un cuadrúpedo muy corpulento y raro…, plate 1 (Madrid: Viuda de Ibarra, 1796).
Figure 2. | J.B. Bru and M. Navarro, detail of plate 2, in J. Garriga, Descripción del esqueleto.
Figure 3. | The megatherium, drawn by D’Alton, in W. Buckland, Geology and Mineralogy Considered with Reference to Natural Theology (London: William Pickering, 1836).
Tapir
Figure 1. | Plants and animals of Ecuador, A. Ulloa, Relación histórica del viage a la América meridional … primera parte, tomo segundo (Madrid: Antonio Marin, 1748.
Cinchona
Figure 1. | Bag for cinchona bark (1777–1785). Credit: Science Museum, London.
Figure 2. | Watercolor map of the Loja region in the Audiencia of Quito depicting bark collectors and cinchona trees labelled as cascarilla (c. 1769). Credit: Wellcome Collection.
Figure 3. | Image of cinchona labelled as ‘Kinquina’ from Pierre Pomet, Histoire generale de drogues 1694 (Wellcome Collection. CC BY).
Figure 4. | Image from Charles Marie de La Condamine, Sur l’abre du quinquin, 17?? (Wellcome Collection. CC BY).
Figure 5. | Specimens of cinchona peruviana sent by José Celestino Mutis to Carolus Linnaeus the Younger, 1764. (Wellcome Collection. CC BY).
Potato
Figure 1. | M. Frostner and R. Schweiker, Potatoes Are Immigrants, 2016.
Figure 2. | J.C. Crawford, Watikini Eating Potato, pencil and ink drawing, 1861.
Guano
Figure 1. | Guano specimen with handwriting examples demonstrating that this sample once belonged to Alexander von Humboldt and likely originated from his time in Peru in 1802 (courtesy of Mineralogisches Sammlung, Museum für Naturkunde der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 1996/5850, S3510-LS004/12 (left and top right); Tagebücher der Amerikanischen Reise VIIbb et VIIc (Quito-Lima), Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Digitalisierte Sammlungen, acc.860/2013, available at https://digital-beta.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/, [725–26] 366r-v, [637] 308v, [737] 374r (middle and lower right)).
Figure 2. | World production of concentrated nitrogen, phosphate, potassium and guano, 1820–2013 (logarithmic projection).
Figure 3. | Sketch of a paxaro niño or Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti), A. von Humboldt (Callao, 1802). This guano-producing bird species is endemic to the Pacific Coast of Peru and Chile. It was renamed by Eurocentric scientists in Humboldt’s honour in 1834. Their numbers decreased radically with the removal of most guano deposits from the Peruvian coast, which they used for digging nest burrows (Pinguin (1802), courtesy of Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Digitalisierte Sammlungen, I/2105, 3).
Figure 4. | Mariano Eduardo de Rivero y Ustáriz (1798–1857), shown grasping a Moche ceramic from his collection of Peruvian antiquities. Rivero was the founding director of the National Museums of Colombia and Peru and the first scientist to engage in systematic investigations of Peruvian guano (public domain).
Darwin’s Tortoise
Figure 1. | An imagined sketch of Darwin on Santiago with an adult tortoise. Artwork by M. Nugent, in C.F. Holder’s Charles Darwin: His Life and Work (1891).
Figure 2. | Charles Darwin in 1840, by G. Richmond.
Figure 3. | Walter Rothschild rides a T. darwini tortoise, Tring, date unknown.
Darwin’s Hummingbird
Figure 1. | Specimen of ten pound sterling banknote in circulation between 2000 and 2018.