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Organised Crime and Migration: Bibliography

Organised Crime and Migration
Bibliography

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Notes

table of contents
  1. Series Page
  2. Title Page
  3. Copyright
  4. Contents
  5. Acknowledgements
  6. Introduction
    1. Organised crime and human mobility in the region
      1. The nature of organised criminal groups
      2. Organised criminal groups in Mexico
      3. Organised criminal groups in Northern Central America
    2. Methodology and approach
      1. Fieldwork in Mexico and El Salvador, 2015
      2. Ethical considerations
      3. Data analysis
      4. The morphogenetic approach: a critical realist analytic framework
        1. The Structure–Agency Impasse
        2. Mixed Flows and Transit Migration
      5. Applying the morphogenetic approach in my data analysis
    3. Engagement and contribution
    4. The structure of the book
    5. Notes
  7. 1. Criminal violence as a driver of internal displacement and external migration
    1. Migration out of Northern Central America
      1. Historical context of displacement and migration in the region
      2. Criminal violence as a driver of migration
      3. New in-country migration controls in Mexico – Plan Frontera Sur
    2. Organised criminal groups and an emerging displacement crisis
      1. Criminal violence in Northern Central America
      2. Understanding external migration driven by organised crime as this new factor emerged
      3. Internal displacement caused by gang violence in Northern Central America
      4. Understanding how organised crime was causing this emerging displacement trend
      5. Understanding the role and response of the state as this new wave of displacement emerged
    3. Organised crime and disorganised movement: conceptualising internal displacement in El Salvador and Honduras
      1. Criminal governance: framing the source of risk
      2. Triggers of flight: levels and immediacy of risk
      3. Fleeing risk: who flees, when and how
      4. Seeking safety: strategies in internal displacement
      5. Displacement dynamics: ostensibly random, fundamentally precarious
      6. Decision-making underpinned by the same logic
    4. Why people leave their country because of criminal violence and persecution by organised criminal groups
      1. Factors that contribute to external flight
        1. Different Levels of Risk, Different Patterns of Mobility
        2. Why Internal Displacement May Not Be Viable
      2. Personal experience of threats or violence and the decision to migrate
        1. Internal Displacement Abandoned in Favour of External Migration
        2. No Internal Displacement Before External Migration
        3. Pre-Emptive External Migration
        4. New Understanding About How Criminal Violence Causes External Flight
    5. Agency and decision-making in displacement caused by criminal violence
    6. Notes
  8. 2. Transit and trajectory through Mexico: navigating risk and finding protection
    1. Locating decisions in transit migration
    2. “I never knew we had a right to be safe”: the right to seek international protection as an influence on migration trajectory
      1. Factors that contribute to determining destination or making asylum claims
      2. Rights information, decision-making and trajectory: morphogenetic analysis
        1. Rights Information and Changes in Destination
        2. Unchanged Destination or Temporary Changes to Plans
      3. How receiving rights information during transit affects migration trajectory
    3. Risk and violence during transit and their impact on migrants’ agency
      1. Migrant experiences in southern Mexico, 2015
      2. Prior knowledge of risk during transit
      3. Criminal attacks during transit
      4. Decision-making following criminal attacks
        1. No Changes to Planned Destination Following Criminal Attacks
        2. Changes to Planned Destination Following Criminal Attacks
      5. Decision-making of those who had fled criminal violence and persecution
      6. How criminal abuse during transit affects migrant agency
    4. Decision-making in transit as part of the migration journey
    5. Notes
  9. 3. Organised crime groups as a threat to migrants during transit
    1. Locating criminal violence and abuse in the transit state
    2. Transit migration: the nature and source of vulnerability and abuse
      1. The vulnerability of people in transit
      2. Violence against migrants in transit: abuse and its systematic nature
      3. The situation in southern Mexico after Plan Frontera Sur
        1. Migrant Agency: Self-Protection Strategies
      4. Perpetrators, operational models and territorial control
      5. The state: impunity, corruption and collusion
      6. Characterising violence during transit migration as structural violence
      7. Contextual factors that enable criminal abuse during transit
    3. The development of organised crime as a structural force during transit: morphogenetic analysis
      1. First phase: organised crime evolves as structural factor in transit migration
      2. Second phase: impact of new migration controls on criminal activity
      3. The causal role of policy
    4. Criminal abuse, policy-driven harm and the role of the state
    5. Notes
  10. 4. People-smuggling through Mexico and the role of organised crime and corruption
    1. Conceptualising people-smuggling
      1. People-smuggling and state integrity
    2. People-smuggling and organised crime in Mexico and Central America
      1. People-smuggling in the region: its role and evolution 2000–15
      2. Criminal actors involved in people-smuggling
      3. The impact of Plan Frontera Sur (2014–16)
      4. Transcontinental links
    3. Migration controls and the evolution of people-smuggling and organised crime: a morphogenetic perspective
      1. The evolution of people-smuggling in Mexico and Central America: morphogenetic analysis
        1. First Phase: Post-2001 Migration Controls
        2. Second Phase: Mexican Security Policy After 2006
        3. Third Phase: The Implementation of Plan Frontera Sur in 2014
      2. Impact of migration controls on people-smuggling and related corruption
    4. Migrant agency in the context of people-smuggling
      1. Migrant agency: constrained by circumstance
      2. Migrant agency: transforming power and emergent properties
        1. First Phase: Agency Leads to Structural Elaboration in Transit State
        2. Second Phase: Agency Continues Despite Previous Structural Elaboration
      3. Impact of agency on the deployment of policy and on its efficacy
    5. People-smuggling, corruption and state integrity
    6. Notes
  11. 5. Law, policy and the state: accountability for adverse consequences, criminal activity and corruption
    1. Externalisation of migration controls under Plan Frontera Sur
      1. Developing perspectives on policy outcomes
    2. Locating understanding about the consequences of policy, the acts of non-state actors and state accountability
      1. Adverse policy outcomes and policy gaps
      2. The externalisation of migration controls and the transit state
      3. State accountability
    3. Deportations under Plan Frontera Sur: state obligations versus policy outcomes
      1. Obligations to those with potential international protection needs
      2. Implementation of Plan Frontera Sur: a morphogenetic perspective
      3. Adverse consequences of Plan Frontera Sur
      4. Deportations that may not meet legal obligations
      5. Financial incentives
      6. Implications of political pressure and financial incentives
    4. The state, abuse by organised crime and impunity
      1. State responsibility for acts of non-state actors: due diligence and beyond
      2. Morphogenetic perspective on state inaction: from tolerance to impunity
      3. Impunity and the foreseeable adverse consequences of policy: insight from morphogenetic analysis
      4. Implications of ‘collateral damage’ for notions of state accountability
    5. The state and people-smuggling: the nexus of migration and corruption
      1. Coexistence and collusion
      2. Weakened state integrity
      3. Implications of corruption for notions of state responsibility
    6. The dimensions of the state’s role and responsibility
    7. Notes
  12. Conclusions and reflections
    1. Contributions to knowledge and understanding about the empirical situation
      1. Displacement and migration caused by organised crime in Northern Central America
      2. Abuse during transit in Mexico
      3. People-smuggling through Mexico
      4. Policy and state responsibility
    2. Morphogenetic approach: a tool for analysis and synthesis
    3. Contribution to broader academic debates
      1. Agency, decision-making and displacement dynamics in forced migration
      2. Policy gaps and adverse consequences
      3. State accountability
      4. Synthesising these debates
    4. Final reflections
      1. The evolving situation in Mexico and Central America
      2. Global relevance
      3. Future research directions
    5. Notes
  13. Bibliography
  14. Index

Bibliography

Primary legal sources

Domestic laws of Mexico

Ley General de Población (2008, last amended 2025)

Ley de Migración (2011, last amended 2024); also Reglamento de la Ley de Migración (2012, amended 2014)

Ley General de los Derechos de Niñas, Niños y Adolescentes (2014, last amended 2024)

Ley sobre Refugiados, Protección Complementaria y Asilo Político (2011, amended 2014, 2020 and 2022)

Reglamento de la Ley sobre Refugiados, Protección Complementaria y Asilo Político (2011)

International legal instruments

  • UN General Assembly, Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189: 137.
  • UN International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 999: 171.
  • UN General Assembly, 1985. Declaration on the Human Rights of Individuals who are not Nationals of the Country in which They Live, A/RES/40/144.
  • UN International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families, 18 December 1990, A/RES/45/158.
  • UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 15 November 2000, A/RES/55/25.
  • Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 15 November 2000.
  • UN General Assembly, Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, 12 December 2001, UN Doc A/RES/56/83.
  • UN Convention against Corruption, 31 October 2003, A/RES/58/422.
  • UN New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants, 19 September 2016, A/RES/71/1.

Regional legal instruments

  • American Convention on Human Rights ‘Pact of San José, Costa Rica’ (B-32), Organization of American States (OAS), 22 January 1969.
  • Cartagena Declaration on Refugees, Colloquium on the International Protection of Refugees in Central America, Mexico and Panama, 22 November 1984.

Comments, recommendations and advisory opinions

  • CCPR General Comment No. 15: The Position of Aliens Under the Covenant, UN Human Rights Committee (HRC), 11 April 1986.
  • CCPR General Comment No. 18: Non-discrimination, UN Human Rights Committee (HRC), 10 November 1989.
  • General Comment No. 31: The Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant, UN Human Rights Committee (HRC), 26 May 2004, CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13.
  • General Comment No. 32: Right to Equality before Courts and Tribunals and to a Fair Trial, UN Human Rights Committee (HRC), 23 August 2007, CCPR/C/GC/32.
  • General Comment No. 36: Article 6: Right to Life, UN Human Rights Committee (HRC), 3 September 2019, UN Doc. CCPR/C/GC/36.
  • Protection of Migrants: Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly, UN General Assembly, 28 February 2002, A/RES/56/170.
  • Juridical Condition and Rights of the Undocumented Migrants, Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR), Advisory Opinion OC-18/03, 17 September 2003, Inter-Am. Ct. H.R. (Ser. A) No. 18 (2003).
  • General Recommendation XXX (30) on Discrimination Against Non-Citizens, UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD), 1 October 2002.
  • General Recommendation No. 26 on Women Migrant Workers, UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), 5 December 2008, CEDAW/C/2009/WP.1/R.
  • Report on Citizen Security and Human Rights, Inter-American Commission of Human Rights (IACHR), OEA/Ser.L/V/II, Doc.57, 31 December 2009.

Cases

  • ICJ, Case concerning the military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Judgment of 27 June 1986, ICJ 14.
  • ICJ, Case concerning Avena and other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America), Judgment of 31 March 2004, ICJ 3.
  • ICJ, Legal consequences of the construction of a wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion of 9 July 2004, ICJ 136.
  • ICJ, Armed activities on the territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment of 19 December 2005, ICJ 168.
  • ICJ, Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment of 26 February 2007, ICJ 91 (Bosnian Genocide Case).
  • IACtHR, Velásquez Rodríguez v. Honduras Case, Judgment of 29 July 1988, Inter-Am.Ct.H.R. (Ser. C) No.4 (1988).
  • IACtHR, ‘Mapiripán Massacre’ v. Colombia Case, Judgment of 15 September 2005, Inter-Am.Ct.H.R. (Ser. C) No.134 (2005).
  • ICTY, Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić (Appeal Judgment), IT-94-1-A, ICTY, International Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), 15 July 1999.

Select bibliography

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  • Albaladejo, A. (2016) ‘No life here: Internal displacement in El Salvador’, Latin America Working Group, 18 February 2016. Available at: https://angelikaalbaladejo.com/2016/02/18/no-life-here-internal-displacement-in-el-salvador/ (Accessed: 15 February 2026).
  • Albarracín, J. and Barnes, N. (2020) ‘Criminal violence in Latin America’, Latin American Research Review, 55(2): 397–406.
  • Albuja, S. (2014) ‘Criminal violence, displacement and migration in Mexico and Central America’ in S.F. Martin, S. Weerasinghe and A. Taylor (eds) Humanitarian Crises and Migration: Causes, Consequences and Responses. Abingdon: Routledge.
  • Amnesty International (2010) ‘Invisible victims: Migrants on the move in Mexico’, AMR 41/014/2010, London: Amnesty International.
  • Amnesty International (2016) ‘Home sweet home? Honduras, Guatemala and El Salvador’s role in a deepening refugee crisis’, AMR 01/4865/2016, London: Amnesty International.
  • Amnesty International (2017) ‘Americas: “No safe place”: Salvadorans, Guatemalans and Hondurans seeking asylum in Mexico based on their sexual orientation and/or gender identity crisis’, AMR 01/7258/20171, London: Amnesty International.
  • Amnesty International (2018) ‘Mexico: Overlooked, under-protected: Mexico’s deadly refoulement of Central Americans seeking asylum’, AMR 41/7602/2018, London: Amnesty International.
  • Andreas, P. (2001) ‘The transformation of migrant smuggling across the US–Mexican border’, in D. Kyle and R. Koslowski (eds) Global Human Smuggling: Comparative Perspectives (First edition). Baltimore, MA: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Andreas, P. (2011) ‘The transformation of migrant smuggling across the US–Mexican border’, in D. Kyle and R. Koslowski (eds) Global Human Smuggling: Comparative Perspectives (Second edition). Baltimore, MA: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Ángeles Cruz, H. (2010) ‘Las migraciones internacionales en la frontera sur de México’ (International migrations at Mexico’s southern border), in F. Alba, M.A. Castillo and G. Verduzco (eds) Los Grandes Problemas de México III: Migraciones Internacionales (Mexico’s Big Problems III: International Migrations). Mexico City: El Colegio de México.
  • Archer, M.S. (1982) ‘Morphogenesis versus structuration: On combining structure and action’, British Journal of Sociology, 33(4): 455–83.
  • Archer, M.S. (1995) Realist Social Theory: The Morphogenetic Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Archer, M.S. (1996) ‘Social integration and system integration: Developing the distinction’, Sociology, 30(4): 679–99.
  • Archer, M.S. (2011) ‘Morphogenesis: Realism’s explanatory framework’, in A. Maccarini, E. Morandi and R. Prandini (eds) Sociological Realism. New York and Abingdon: Routledge.
  • Archer, M.S. (ed.) (2013) Social Morphogenesis. New York: Springer.
  • Archer, M.S. (2020) ‘The morphogenetic approach: Critical realism’s explanatory framework approach’, in P. Róna and L. Zsolnai (eds) Agency and Causal Explanation in Economics: Virtues and Economics (volume 5). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26114-6_9
  • Archer, M.S. (2024) ‘Coincidence: A word with two meanings for explaining and predicting the future’, Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 54(3): 354–65, https://doi.org/10.1111/jtsb.12405
  • Archer, M.S., Bhaskar, R., Collier, A., Lawson, T. and Norrie, L. (eds) (1998) Critical Realism: Essential Reading. Abingdon and New York: Routledge.
  • Arias, E.D. (2017) Criminal Enterprises and Governance in Latin America and the Caribbean. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Arriola Vega, L.A. (2020) ‘Central American asylum seekers in Southern Mexico: Fluid (im)mobility in protracted migration trajectories’, Journal of Immigrant and Refugee Studies, 19(4): 349–63, https://doi.org/10.1080/15562948.2020.1804033
  • Arriola Vega, L.A. and Martínez, S. (2020) ‘Oscilar entre la esperanza y la incertidumbre. Actitudes sobre trayectorias, autoridades, medidas de protección e (in)seguridad de solicitantes centroamericanos de la condición de refugio en México’ (Between hope and uncertainty. Attitudes toward trajectories, authorities, international protection protocols, and (in)security among Central American refugee-seekers in Mexico), Estudios Políticos, 57: 175–208, https://doi.org/10.17533/udea.espo.n57a09
  • Asmann, P. (2025) ‘Even as US–Mexico border encounters plummet, migrants are still vulnerable to organized crime’, InSight Crime. Available at: https://insightcrime.org/news/us-mexico-border-encounters-plummet-migrants-vulnerable/ (Accessed: 31 January 2026).
  • Associated Press (2015) ‘ “I’m alone”: Migrant children explain why they risked crossing the border’, The Guardian, 26 December 2015. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/dec/26/unaccompanied-migrant-children-us-mexico-border (Accessed: 31 January 2026).
  • Ávalos, H. and Puerta, F. (2017) ‘Migración, remesas y desarrollo regional: trinomio permanente’ (Migration, remittances and regional development: The permanent trinomial), InSight Crime.
  • Aziz, N.A., Monzini, P. and Pastore, F. (2015) ‘The changing dynamics of cross-border human smuggling and trafficking in the Mediterranean’, New-Med Research Network, Rome, Italy: Istituto Affari Internazionali.
  • Baird, T. (2013) ‘Theoretical approaches to human smuggling’, DIIS Working Paper 2013: 10, Copenhagen: Danish Institute of International Studies (DIIS).
  • Bakewell, O. (2010) ‘Some reflections on structure and agency in migration’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 36(10): 1689–708.
  • Ballinas, V. (2010) ‘Muertes de civiles en el combate al crimen, “daños colaterales”: Galván’ (Galván: Deaths of civilians in the fight against crime are ‘collateral damage’), La Jornada, 13 April 2010. Available at: www.jornada.unam.mx/2010/04/13/politica/005n1pol (Accessed: 31 January 2026).
  • Barnes, N. (2017) ‘Criminal politics: An integrated approach to the study of organized crime, politics, and violence’, Perspectives on Politics, 15(4) : 967–87.
  • Barrón, Y., Fernández De Castro, R. and Riviera, L. (2014) ‘Central American transit migration through Mexico to the United States: Diagnosis and recommendations. Towards a comprehensive regional vision and shared responsibility’. Mexico City: ITAM (Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México). http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/2.1.1946.4481
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  • Casillas, R. (2016a) ‘Entre la política deseada, la practicada y los flujos migratorios emergentes: Respuesta en construcción y desfíos duraderos’ (Between the desired policy, practice and emerging migratory flows: Response under construction and ongoing challenges), ITAM Working Paper, Mexico City: ITAM (Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México).
  • Casillas, R. (2016b) ‘La delincuencia que daña a la población migrante en México aprende e innova, ¿y qué hacen la sociedad y el Estado?’ (Criminality that harms the migrant population in Mexico learns and innovates. But what are society and the State doing?), ITAM Working Paper, Mexico City: ITAM (Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México).
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