Organised Crime and Migration

Index

Index

agency and structure, 1, 15–16, 19, 20, 116, 128, 187–8
apprehension of migrants in Mexico, 92, 150, 173, 185
extortion during, 157, 161
racial profiling during, 157
violence and human rights violations during, 145, 150, 185, 192, 157
Archer, Mary, 15, 20, 146
See also morphogenetic approach
asylum claims 3, 34, 62–73, 77, 80–2, 83–4, 158–60, 173, 183, 195, 197
asylum law. See laws

Bakewell, Oliver, 15, 16, 20, 176, 187, 189

Cantor, David, 26, 34, 39, 41, 45, 58
Cartels. See organised criminal groups in Mexico
COMAR. See Mexico’s refugee processing agency
corruption
as a strategy of organised crime groups, 2, 5–7, 37, 88, 103, 152, 166, 169–73, 176–7, 192–4
criminal governance, 4–11, 38–43, 58, 87–8,196
and displacement, 37–40, 58, 182
social control, 40, 41–2
state–gang relations, 5–8, 10–11, 40–1, 43, 127, 151, 164–6, 169–71, 193, 196
territorial control, 39–40, 41

decision-making
during transit migration in Mexico, 19–21, 62–83
external or cross-border flight, 38, 46–7, 49–57
in forced migration, 25–6, 57–9, 80, 114–5, 182–3, 185, 186–7, 188–190, 194
internal displacement, 38–9, 46–9,
deportations
from Mexico, 132, 136, 137
increases under Plan Frontera Sur, 29, 31, 132, 136–7, 145, 154–6, 173
of minors, 145, 154–6
risk after, 31–2, 81, 156, 158–60
without due process, 145, 153–6, 158–160, 161–2
detention of migrants
detention centres, 92, 145, 154
minors, 154
displacement
cross–border flight, 25–6, 33, 38, 46–7, 49–59
diverse drivers of, 18, 26–7, 35–7, 198, 201
dynamics, 25–6, 37–9, 41–57, 57–9, 182, 188–90, 195, 198
external migration, 3–4, 19–22, 25–8, 30–2, 49–59. Also see transit migration
internal displacement, 3–4, 19–22, 25–6, 28, 32–5, 37–49, 58–9, 182, 195
lack of effective state response to, 36–7, 41–9, 55, 57

externalisation
of migration policy, 2, 3, 17, 21, 23, 60, 87, 98, 110, 114, 126, 138, 143–153, 161–2, 168, 173–175, 177, 184, 187, 188, 192, 194, 198, 199, 200–1
political pressure regarding, 136, 148, 155–6, 157, 160, 161–2
extortion
by criminal actors during transit, 7–10, 74, 87, 93–94, 100, 106–7, 121, 123, 130–1, 165, 196, 198
by organised criminal groups in Northern Central America, 6, 32, 34, 35, 42, 43, 51–52, 55–6, 94, 159
by state actors during transit, 101, 128, 157

forced recruitment, 35, 40, 41, 43, 45–6, 50, 52, 55–5, 65, 67

gang violence
and displacement, 18, 25–30, 32–51, 61, 64–6, 196, 198
extreme, 1, 8, 10, 24, 30, 40, 41–2, 85, 87, 94, 96–7, 113, 123, 131
for contingent reasons and messages, 4–5, 96–7, 120
transactional, 4, 24
gender–based violence, 34, 35, 40, 42, 43, 46, 92, 93, 95–6, 115

human trafficking, 40, 74, 88, 91–3, 95–6, 100–1, 115, 123–4, 152, 165
humanitarian visa, 83, 154, 179, 183
applying for, 63–73, 77–9, 80–1

impunity, 37–8, 89–93, 90, 100–4, 105–7, 110, 152–3, 162–5, 168–71, 183–4, 193–4
in-country migration controls, 3–4, 28–9, 97–8, 107–8, 124–5, 129, 136–9, 145, 155–8 See also apprehension of migrants in Mexico
international law
obligations under international human rights law, 148–153, 155, 158, 160, 163–4, 174, 176
refugee law 153, 160, 173
state responsibility, 150–3, 162–5, 175–7

kidnapping, 7–8, 74–6, 94, 101, 120, 123–4

laws
Mexico’s Child Rights Law, 154, 178
Mexico’s Law on Refugees, Complementary Protection and Political Asylum, 153–4, 158, 179
Mexico’s Migration Law, 71, 83, 84, 154, 179
See also international law
legislation. See laws

Maras. See organised criminal groups in Northern Central America
Mexico’s refugee processing agency (COMAR), 154, 158, 160
migrant agency 18, 62, 72, 80–5, 88, 97–8, 104, 107, 113–5, 118, 129, 131, 133–8, 146, 156, 171, 184–191, 201
migration. See displacement; transit migration
morphogenetic approach, 15–8, 20–1, 26, 104, 109, 113, 116, 138, 146, 163, 168, 172, 174, 176, 185–8, 188–90, 191, 194–5

non-refoulement, 153
apparent non-compliance, 153–162, 185, 192

organised criminal groups
in Mexico, 7–9, 87–9, 98–101, 105–7, 120–22, 196
modus operandi, 7–10. See also criminal governance
nature of, 4–7
in Northern Central America, 9–11, 38–41, 73–4, 99–100, 106–8, 120–1, 131

people-smuggling
and corruption, 117–8, 121, 124–5, 129–33, 139–40, 169–174
and organised crime groups, 118–24, 130–1
as a protection racket or strategy against criminal attacks, 18, 23, 118–9, 123–4, 139
Plan Frontera Sur, 2–4, 11, 28–9, 143–5, 156–62, 177–8
impact of, 72–3, 93, 97, 107–9, 124–37, 154, 168, 171–4, 184–5, 190–2, 197
See also policy, adverse consequences of
policy
adverse consequences of, 88–9, 109–100, 116, 138–40, 143–6, 149, 156–7, 166–8, 173–7, 184, 190–4
gaps, 146–7, 190–1, 194–5
impact of restrictive migration controls, 82, 88–90, 104–11, 126–7, 129–33, 137–40, 147, 168, 185
implementation in a context of corruption and organised crime, 86, 89–90, 109–171, 126–8, 143–4, 163, 177, 183–5, 187–191, 198–200
policy-driven harm, 86, 109–11, 144
Programa Frontera Sur. See Plan Frontera Sur

refugee camps in Mexico, 24, 73
regularisation of migratory status, 61, 63–5, 69–72, 76–82, 154, 156, 198

sexual violence. See gender–based violence
state actors
involvement in abuse of migrants in Mexico, 102, 120, 140, 165, 177, 192, 197
state responsibility, 2, 18, 20–1, 85–6, 143–4, 149–165, 172–7, 184–5, 190–194
See also international law, state responsibility

transit migration
criminal attacks during, 74–9, 89, 93, 100, 108, 157, 173, 185, 191
risk from criminal groups during, 8–9, 80–101, 106–8, 120–1
risk from state actors during, 91–3, 145, 148, 150, 185, 192
structural violence during, 86–7, 89–93, 102–3, 109–111, 116, 165–6, 191–2
vulnerability during, 86–93
transit state, 62–4, 88–2, 147–9
externalisation of policy to, 53, 126–8, 138–9, 148–150, 155, 157–8, 194